根据《在职人员以研究生毕业同等学力申请硕士学位外国语课程水平统一考试大纲》的规定，要求考生具备一定的写作能力，在30分钟内按要求写出一篇100～120词的短文，形式可以是按所给的提纲写短文，或描述图表，写内容提要、概述等。本题15分。
一、评分标准
写作评分标准主要围绕四个方面评判：1.内容要切题；2.能正确表达思想；3.意义连贯；4.无重大语法错误。批改作文时，主要从内容和语言两个方面进行综合评判。内容和语言是一个统一体。作文应表达题目所规定的内容，而内容要通过语言来表达。作文是否切题，是否充分表达思想，和语言上的错误是否造成理解上的障碍有密切的关系。下面就评分标准的四个方面分别加以说明。
(一)内容切题
在目前常见的作文题目中，内容切题一般包括两个方面。一是写作内容要围绕题目规定的话题展开。比如“A Fiveday Week”(五天工作制)，文章的内容应围绕五天工作制进行论述，与其无关的内容，当以跑题论处，但此种现象并不多见。其二，在有些作文题中还包括提纲如：
Fire Accidents in Big Cities
Outline：1.Present Situation
2.Causes
3.Measures
这种带提纲的作文题目不仅要求考生根据标题写作，而且要根据提纲规定的内容和范围展开各个段落，不能按自己的思路发挥。考生在这方面出的问题比较多。如1994年考研作文题是：On Making Friends(论交友)，其三段的提纲分别是：1.The need for friends 2.True Friendship 3.My principle in making friends。第三段的提纲要求考生围绕我交友的原则进行议论，然而有个别考生在段中这样写道：
The former paragraph has shown my principle in making friends in some way.Furthermore,what I want to say is that one good friend is enough.
该考生把应放在第三段中论述的内容写在第二段中，第三段就没内容可写了。这类命题作文要求考生按规定和要求写作，不能按自己的想法随意更改，写上段作文的考生不仅第三段没有扣题，第二段也没有做到内容切题。一篇内容切题的作文应能既围绕题目，又能在各段扣准提纲，才真正符合内容切题的要求。下面这一段是另一学生的作文，都是第三段，内容切题，恰当地扣住了“我交友的原则”的写作要求：
When I choose friends,I do not care what work they do or what social background they are from,but I do notice those little things which reveal one′s characters.I would make sure that we really care for each other,so that no matter how much time goes by without seeing each other,I know my friends will always be there,ready to help if I need them,And I know we are true friends indeed.
(二)能正确地表达思想
一篇好短文能使读者一目了然。文章的思路应清楚，逻辑性强，能准确表达作者的思想。请对比下面两段：
Have you a bike?Taking a bike is a good way,most people think.But in university it seems not as good as other places.Bikes are possible to be stolen now and then.Having a bike isn′t always good enough for us to buy one.
上段作者的思路紊乱不清，字里行间不仅有许多语病，而且也没能把思想表达清楚。读后仍不知作者在表达什么思想、观点，因而这样的段落只能得0分。请看下段：
It is very convenient to use bikes in China.Bikes don′need fuel,nor a garage or a large parking lot.Bikes can go through narrow streets and their prices are low.So bikes are the most popular vehicles in China today.
上段的作者以其简单的词汇、简洁的语言、清楚的思路正确地表达了思想，使读者观后能即刻领会作者的思想。
要能正确地表达思想，考生还应掌握一些写作技巧，如写好段落主题句，展开段落的方法，写好段尾句等。此外还应掌握一定的词汇量和习惯表达法。
(三)意义连贯
文章的层次要分明，条理要清楚，上下文之间、词与词、句与句之间要上下连贯，前后呼应，才能使文章结构严谨，思路清晰、有条理。
下面这个段落是一篇文章的第三段。文章的标题是：Good Health；提纲是1.Importance of good health；2.Ways to keep fit；3.My own practice。根据第三段的提纲“我的做法”，一个考生这样写：
I don′t eat meat much.Every morning I take the long run and in my spare time I like playing tennis and volleyball.In this way I keep good health and lead a happy life.
上段基本切题，包括提纲要点，表达也基本清楚，但是表达不够连贯。第一句话让人读起来感觉有些突然，分析第一句，作者没有把意思表达清楚，作者的“我吃肉不多”一定含有这样的意思：我饮食素淡，吃蔬菜水果多，吃肉少。如果能把这层意思写出来，文章的连贯性也就体现出来了。作者的第二句是从体育锻炼方面来表明自己是如何保持健康的，这应是本段中的又一层意思，在这里如能加一个过渡词，会使文章过渡自然流畅。请看下面经过修改的段落：
As for me(1),I enjoy a good health as I keep a simple diet with more vegetables,fruit and less meat.Moreover,I do some exercises whenever I have time such as long distance running,playing tennis or volleyball.As a result(2),I have been a top student all through the four years in the university.So good health is important to everyone(3).
(1)发挥了承上启下的作用，没有这样一个介词短语，从第二段过渡到第三段就会显得生硬一些。(2)也起到了连贯作用，在上述两方面保持健康的方法介绍完后，应该进一步写出所产生的结果，这结果就是对全段的总结概括。(3)对文章的标题及开头起了首尾呼应的作用。
(四)无重大语法错误
重大语法错误一般指时态不一致、主语谓语单复数形式不一致、用词不当等，这些问题的存在说明考生在平时的英语学习中很少练习写作，有人甚至从没写过作文，因而出现各种各样语法错误是可以理解的。考生应在考前多进行这方面的训练，一些语法错误在实践中是可以纠正过来的。下面举几例常见错误。
病句及其分析：
1.So colleg e provid e the best condition for students.
此句的主谓语不一致。因为句子的意思是泛指大学为学生提供了最好的学习环境，这里的主语college应变为复数。这类错误极为常见。
2.Going to college does not followed that We′ll have a splendid future.
此句的主语是现在分词短语，全句的意思是：上大学并不表示我们的未来就一定会光辉灿烂。does not后应跟动词原型follow。
3.Second,have a part time job for poor student is a good way to help reduce his family burden.
此句中有两处错误。have a part time job不能直接作主语，可以改为不定式作主语to have a part time job,或者动名词作主语having a part time job。第二处错误是poor student。普通名词前应有冠词a或the,如前面没有冠词，名词应是复数形式。在这里可选用不定冠词，a poor student,或者poor students。在此句中为了与后半句中的his呼应将其改为a poor student为好。
4.In recent years,fake goods have been discovered more and more in the market.
第四句是中文式的英文，这是考生作文中的常见错误。按照英语的习惯可改为More and more fake goods have been discovered in the market in recent years.
5.The first hand I think is that law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced.
第五句中的The first hand是错的，应改为On the one hand；I think是插入成分，在写作中应尽量不使用这样的插入成分；law 前应有冠词，此句经修改后是：On the one hand,a law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced.
二、写作技巧
一篇好的短文应该观点明确，思路清晰，论述有力、准确，语言正确，文字简洁、流畅、连贯，结构严谨。短文是由段落组成，因此写好段落是写好短文的关键。
段落的组成分为三部分，主题句(Topic Sentence),推展句(Development Sentences)和结论句(Concluding Sentence)。下面分别就这三方面进行详解。
(一)主题句
1.主题句的作用
主题句是全段的核心句，读者通过主题句能了解段落的中心思想。一个好的主题句还能限制话题所谈论的范围，表明段落展开的方向及方法。在英语文章中，围绕主题句展开的段落很多。下面两段摘自1995年的阅读试题。
A job applicant has the responsibility for ascertaining certain types of information prior to the interview. First,the applicant should know what kind of job he wants and how that job relates to his career objective.It is important that the applicant be able to state his reasons for wishing to work for a particular company.Second,the applicant should seek as much information as possible concerning the company.Relevant information for the applicant to locate includes such items as the location of the home and regional offices,the financial status of the company,plans for expansion,and company philosophy.Information about most major corporations is available in reference books and periodicals.
上段第一句是段落的主题句，句子的大意是：申请工作的人在接受面试前有责任了解某些方面的信息。主题句中的关键词是ascertaining certain types of information。紧接着，文章围绕主题句从两方面展开，论述了申请人应了解两类信息。
If Europeans thought a drought was something that happened only in Africa,they know better now. After four years of belownormal rainfall (in some cases only 10 percent of the annual average), vast areas of France,Spain,Portugal,Belgium,Britain and Ireland are dry and barren .Water is so low in the canals of northern France that waterway traffic is forbidden except on weekends.Oyster growers in Britain report a 30 percent drop in production because of the loss of fresh water in local rivers necessary for oyster breeding.In southeastern England,the rolling green hills of Kent have turned so brown that officials have been weighing plans to pipe in water from wales.In Portugal,farmers in the southern Alentejo region have held prayer meetings for rain—so far,in vain.
上段中第二句是主题句，它点明了全段的中心思想，即：四年来，法国、西班牙、葡萄牙、比利时，英国及爱尔兰的降雨量低于常年，这些国家的广大地区都严重缺水。下面的各句都是围绕这一主题展开的。
从上面两段中我们可以看到英语的段落只能有一个中心思想，如要再论述其他与该段中心思想无关的内容应另起一段。
2.主题句的位置
主题句的位置可以在段首：
London′s weather is very strange .It can rain several times a day;each time the rain may come suddenly after the sun is shining brightly.The air is damp(潮湿的)and chill(冷的)right through July.On one March afternoon on Hampton Heath last year it rained three times,there was one hail(冰雹)storm,and the sun shone brilliantly—all this within two hours′s time.It is not unusual to see men and women rushing down the street on a sunny morning with umbrellas on their arms.No one knows what the next few moments will bring.
主题句的位置可以在段落中间：
Just as I settle down to read or watch television,he demands that I play with him.If I get a telephone call,he screams in the background or knocks something over.I always have to hang up to find out what′s wrong with him, Babysitting with my little brother is no fun. He refuses to let me eat a snack(快餐)in peace.Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat.Then,when he finally grows tired,it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep.
主题句的位置可以在段尾：
Doctors are of the opinion that most people cannot live beyond 100 years,but a growing number of scientists believe that the aging process can be controlled.There are more than 12 000 Americans over 100 years old,and their numbers are increasing each year.DrJames Langley of Chicago claims that,theoretically and under ideal(理想的)conditions,animals,including man,can live six times longer than their normal period of growth.A person′s period of growth lasts about 25 years.If Dr.Langley′s theory is accurate(准确的), future generations can expect a life span(寿命)of 150 years .
主题句的位置可在段首段尾同时出现：
Good manners are important in all countries,but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country .Americans eat with knives and forks(叉)；Japanese eat with chopsticks(筷子).Americans say“Hi”when they meet;Japanese bow.Many American men open doors for women;Japanese men do not.On the surface,it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan,and in a way this is true.But in any country,the only manners that are important are those involving one person′s behavior toward another person.In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country .
(以上4段摘自大学英语精读课本)
主题句出现在段落首或尾完全由写作需要而定。一般地说来，写这样100多词的小短文把主题句放在段首更有利于考生扣准中心思想展开论述。
3.怎样写好主题句
主题句在段落中有着举足轻重的作用。因此写好主题句是写好段落的关键。在构思主题句时要注意以下三个方面：
(1)主题句首先应是一个完整的句子，任何词组或修饰成分都不能作主题句。如：More burdens,就不是一个完整的句子。Reading is thought to be a kind of conversation between the reader
and the text，则是一个比较好的主题句。
(2)主题句不应太笼统概括。如：William Shakespeare is great这句话很笼统，对段落如何展开没有指导和限定作用，因而不能作主题句。如改为：William Shakespeare wrote several historic plays,则下文就能围绕莎氏的历史剧展开论述了。
(3)主题句不能太具体。如：The dictionary is small，句子如果太琐碎具体就失去进一步展开的意义了。
(4)各段的主题句应相互照应。在以 No Smoking为题的作文中，各段的主题句分别是：
Smoking is harmful.
Smoking does not only harm the smokers but also people around them.
Therefore,smoking is a bad habit.
第二段的主题句用not only，but also连接词语沟通了上下两段的内容。第三段的Therefore又起了承上启下的作用，使全篇融为一体。
(二)段落的展开
展开段落的方法有很多种，在这里我们仅介绍几种常用方法。
1.依据归纳法或演绎法进行论述
依据归纳法展开段落是指在段落中先引用具体事实或因由进行阐述或论说，进而得出结论。演绎法则是由一般推出特殊情况的结论。
下面这一段落是用归纳法展开的段落。最后一句是结论，也是主题句。
And that is exactly what reading a book should be：a conversation between you and the auther.Presumably,he knows more about the subject than you do;naturally,you will have the proper humility as you approach him.But don′t let anybody tell you that a reader is supposed to be solely on the receiving end.Understanding is a twoway operation;learning doesn′t consist in being an empty receptacle.The learner has to question himself and the teacher.He even has to argue with the teacher,once he understands what the teacher is saying.And marking a book is literally an expression of your differences,or agreements of opinion,with the author.
2.依据重要性展开段落
依据思想或事实或理由的重要性的先后次序进行论述，可以从次要至重要，也可以从重要至次重要。下面段落是以次重要至重要的方法进行论述的。作者首先指出(医生)对病人撒谎不仅对医生本人不好，也会伤害同事，进而会有损于整个医疗事业。
Lies also do harm to those who tell them:harm to their integrity and,in the long run,to their credibility.Lies hurt their colleagues as well.The suspicion of deceit undercuts the work of the many doctors who are scrupulously honest with their patiens;it contributes to the spiral of lawsuits and of “defen sive medicine”,and thus it injures,in turn,the entire medical profession.
3.依据比较和对比法进行论述
一般地说，比较是指对事物的相同方面进行比较；对比是指对比事物的差异或不同方面。下面两段就采用了对比方法。这两段将口头英语与书面英语的不同方面作了比较，两段的观点都一一对应，比如：Oral English is imformal while written English is comparatively formal就是一对观点的对比。另外，两段之间用unlike oral Englsh承接，既让段落过渡自然，又使对比强烈。
First of all,oral English is usually considered informal.So no matter how poor one′s language is and how strange and foreign one′s pronunciation is,it seems insignificant if only one can make his audience understood.Secondly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind,or even hardly notice how many grammatical mistakes the speaker makes.Furthermore,oral English is also regarded adaptable.When we cannot express something precisely,we may give the explanation of it instead,or correct the mistakes on the spot.So oral English gives less chances of misunderstanding.
Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.It requires good spelling and perfect grammar.Poor spelling and too many grammatical mistakes will put readers in a puzzling difficulty.They would be confused about what writers are getting at.In addition,once the words are printed on the paper and handed to whoever the person concerned,writers can no longer make any changes.To avoid this,one has to pay much attention to spelling,practise grammer and write clearly—constructed paragraphs.As a result it will take longer time and much more efforts to communicate in written English than in oral English.
4.依据时间的先后进行论述
依据时间的先后次序展开段落，就是完全按照事物实际发展的时间先后进行论述。如：下面两段就是以时间为序介绍鹿的生长过程。随着夏季一天天过去，又随着秋去冬来，鹿的新陈代谢也随着季节的推移而变化。
As the summer progresses and the fawns grow,they become less dependent on their mother′s milk and more dependent on growing plants as food sources.The adult males spend the summer growing antlers and getting fat.Both males and females continue to eat high quality food in the fall in order to deposit body fat for the winter.In the case of does and fawns,a great deal of energy is expended either in milk production or in growing,and fat is not accumulated as quickly as it is in full grown males.Fat reserves are like bank accounts to be drawn on in the winter when food supplies are limited and sometimes difficult to reach because of deep snow.
As fall turns into winter,other changes take place.Fawns lose their spotted coat.Hair on all the deer becomes darker and thicker.The change in the hair coats is usually complete by September and maximum hair depths are reached by November or December when winter becomes cold.
5.依据空间顺序展开段落
依据空间的次序进行论述应是有序地由远至近或由近至远，由上至下或由下至上对事物进行描写。下面的例子描写了一幅美丽宁静的夜景。作者先描写空中的月亮，再随洒向大地的月光写到湖四周随风摇曳的树枝，又由青蛙的叫声把读者引到了湖的中央，最后结尾讲：这是一个多么迷人的夜晚。这个段落文字简洁流畅，有序地按空间顺序由上写到下，由外写到里。读者可在平时的练习中注意模仿。
It is a beautiful and quiet night.The moon is like a disc hanging on the dark sky,which casts its light on everything.Around the lake are some trees,their slender leaves billowing in the gentle wind.There must be some frogs in the middle of the lake,whose endless singing can be heard clearly.What an attractive night!
(三)写好结尾句
段落结尾或文章的结尾的方法很多，比如在文章的结论段提出问题，让读者自己去解答；引用谚语或名人名言进一步印证作者的观点；或将前面所讲的内容重点摘述等。在这里仅介绍几种适合写短文结尾的常用方法。
1.回答段落主题句中暗示的问题
如下面段落的第一句作为主题句阐明了做摘要的全过程显示(一个人)的决策能力。在文章的结尾作者以答复的口气作结论说：根据你在做笔记时所投入的时间和精力，你做摘要的效率会得到相应的提高。
The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.
2.呼应主题句中的关键词，使用关键词的同义词重申段落的中心思想
下面段落的第一句为主题句，其关键词是famous。在结尾句中可使用它的同义词wellknown作结论。
Our university is one of the most famous universities in China.It is an old university whose origins can be traced back to 1938,when it was first built up in Yanan.Now,it is located in the northwest of Beijing.As a university of liberal arts,it has 25 departments,more than 50 majors,about 7 000 students and 4 000 teachers.It also plays a leading role in social science.In short,our university is wellknown both at home and abroad.
3.将段落中所论述的内容以摘要的方式进行总结
下面段落阐述了三方面的内容：environment,goods和service,可以用连接词not only…but also将三方面概括为一句作为结论句。
Walking into those luxury shopping centers,people will be fascinated by the beautiful decorations,graceful environment and elegant goods.There are various things for people to select:fashionable clothes,lovely stationery or precious jewelries.Besides people will be warmly greeted by salesmen and women who will offer a satisfactory service.In a word,such shopping centers provide not only pleasant environment,abundant goods but also excellent service.
4.以提问的方式结束段落
下面的段落讲述吃早饭的重要性，结尾句作者设问：如果不吃早饭或凑合吃一口会怎么样?这样的结尾为下一段不吃早饭的危害作了铺垫。
Many health experts consider breakfast to be the most important meal of the day.If we eat a good breakfast,we′ll have the energy and nutrients we need to begin our working day vigorously.It is especially true if one′s work involves mental activity.However,what happens if people skip breakfast or substitute a simple one for a high qualified meal?
5.使用过渡词给文章或段落作结论
如：In brief,tourism,according to my opinion,should not be encouraged.这里in brief起总结作用。Certaily,close cooperation will make the world a better place.这里的certainly发挥了强调及过渡作用。
以上两种方法简单易学，注意在实践中应用。
三、图表作文
图表作文与写议论文和说明文的写作方法大致相同，唯一的差异就是如何利用浓缩在图表中的信息阐明图中各种数据和信息所反映的问题。因此考生在写此类作文时只有在看懂图表的基础上才能动笔写。如果不能全部领会图中信息，在写作中就会出现这样或那样的问题。因此考生在阅读图表时
应注意以下两点：
第一，掌握图表上提供的信息及每一栏上面的小标题的标注，由此弄清设计者想通过图表反映出的信息、问题或现象。
第二，在掌握全部信息的基础上，着手分析这些信息和表上的具体数字。通过分析与对比，抓住问题，便可以开拓思路，构思文章的布局、段落的划分及上下文的连贯等。
段落的划分可根据内容而定。一般第一段应对图表做一简要的概述，点出所要涉及的问题；中间段落应对图表的重要问题进行分析；结尾段对全文做一小结。
请看下面图表：
FOOD\YEAR
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Grain
49%
47%
46.5%
45%
45%
Milk
10%
11%
11%
12%
13%
Meat
17%
20%
22.5%
23%
21%
Fruit and Vege tables
24%
22%
20%
20%
21%
Total
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
审题：
这张图表介绍了1986年～1990年人们食品结构发生的变化。食品包括四大类：粮、奶、肉及水果蔬菜。从图表上看，粮食消费量在逐年下降，奶和肉的消费量在上升，可见人民生活水平提高了。蔬菜水果消费量下降的原因可否归结为物价上扬问题。根据上述分析我们可以将文章分为3～5段。
According to the above table,we can see that some changes have taken place in people′s diet since 1986,which clearly indicates the improvement of people′s living standard.
One of the big changes is the decrease of grain consumption with 49 percent in 1986 and 45 percent in 1990.On people′s dinner tables the traditional dominant food—grain has given some way to milk and meat which were seldom seen on dinner tables before.Since the economic reform in 1978,various kinds of food have become popular in Chinese families.
However,there is a steady reduction of fruit and vegetables with 24 percent in 1986 and a three point drop by 1990.But this is not the main trend.As the living standard of the Chinese people is rising,we look forward to further changes in people′s diet.The proportion of fruit and vegetables as well as milk and meat will definitely increase in the coming yesrs.
四、写摘要
摘要写作是一种实用的写作技能。写摘要就是要用简洁的语言概述一个问题、事件或观点。它的用处十分广泛，在写论文、报告、总结或演讲稿时都需要这一技能。
摘要的特点是简明扼要，因此写摘要时要对全文进行选择取舍，抓住重点，突出新观点，强调文章的目的和主要结论。
要写好摘要，应注意以下三方面：
第一，要理解原文，了解原文的总体结构和主导思想以及作者的意图。
第二，要确认每一段的主题句及重要细节。
最后，要注意全文的结尾，因为作者常在结尾归纳总结全文或重申主题。
选择取舍也是写好摘要的关键。一般的细节，冗长的说明，修饰成分等可删节或简化。摘要不仅要简洁，还应(和其他文章一样)完整流畅。
原文：
The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.
第一段的中心思想指出写摘要的过程是检查一个人的阅读理解水平的过程。它包括对文章总体结构的掌握，对主题思想的理解。(注意：本文的重点是写摘要，因此本段涉及的“决策能力”可以不提。)
Your final summary should reflect clearly and accurately what the author has said.An inaccurate summary may be worse than no summary at all.An effective method of testing the quality of your summary is to set it aside for a month or two and then reread it.If it still recalls the essential information for you and seems to express the material in a clear and exact manner,you have done a good job.If it does not,make another attempt.This time you will do a better job.This method,incidentally,may well be applied to other types of writing.Many young writers have been advised to put their material aside for a while.If a piece of writing seems as good a year or two later as the day they finished it,they can begin to feel that it will stand the test of time.The same thing,of course,applies to what someone else has written and you have read.If you think a book you read several years ago was the best you have known,reread it.Don′t be surprised if you find yourself sadly disappointed.
第二段的主要观点是摘要应简洁准确。如果写得不好，就不能接受时间的考验。段中列举几个事例都是为了说明上述观点，写摘要时可删去。
Good summaries serve many purposes.Everyone,from professional to houseperson,needs and uses them.Doctors may have to summarize a report of their findings in a particular case for a medical board.They will have to read the summaries of other doctors and summaries of the latest medical research in their field.Lawyers need to prepare a summary,or brief,of their case before they present it in court.Their summary usually takes the form of a sentence outline,and many an early career is hurt by an inability to present a clear and accurate brief.A junior executive may write a summary of a long report for the president of the company.Electrical engineers will summarize their findings to formulate their plans.A student prepares summaries for use in a term paper.
第三段的中心思想表达了写摘要的广泛用途。
摘要：
The ability to write summaries reflects one′s reading comprehension level.If one has a better understanding of the structure of an article and a better grasp of the main idea,he can write the summary efficiently.Moreover,a summary,if accurate and wellwritten,can stand the test of time.Many professions require their staff to possess the ability of writing summaries such as doctors,lawyers,junior executives and students.
五、常用过渡词和句型
过渡词在文章中发挥着连接上下文的作用，学会恰当地运用过渡词会使文章连贯、流畅。本节提供的过渡词都是最基本的，考生在时间紧、工作繁忙的情况下，可根据自己的喜好，掌握各类中的二至三个用法即可。
1.常用于文章开始的过渡词语和句子
(1)To begin with首先
例：To begin with,smoking should be banned in public areas.“首先，公共场所禁止吸烟。”
(2)Generaby speaking一般地说，总体上说
例：Generally speaking,it is the best policy to spend more money on libraries.“总的说来，加大图书馆的投资是良策。”
(3)First of all第一，首先
例：First of all,many people in remote areas still live in poverty.“第一，居住在边远地区的许多人仍生活在贫困之中。”
(4)With(the development/progress/growth)of(economy/society)…随着(经济、社会)的(发展、进步、增长)…
例：With the development of society,women′s role has become more important than ever before in daily life.“随着社会的发展，妇女在社会生活中比以往发挥着更加重要的作用。”
(5)Recently近来
例：Recently，the problem(conflict,production)of grain shortage has become the world focus.“近来粮食短缺问题已成为全球关注的焦点。”
2.常用于文章结尾的过渡词和句子
(1)In conclusion最后，在结束时
例：In conclusion,the international agreement should be made to prevent the world from war.“最后，应达成国际协定使世界避免战争。”
(2)In brief简言之
例：In brief,family planning is of vital importance in China.“简言之，计划生育对中国具有重要意义。”
(3)In a word总之
例：In a word,without mutual understanding,true friendship does not exist.“总之，没有相互理解，真正的友谊是不存在的。”
(4)It is high time that…到…时候了
例：It is high time that the issue were to be solved so as to promote the economic development.“为了促进经济发展到该解决问题的时候了。”
(5)It is only when…that…只有当…才…
例：It is only when people become the masters of the country that science can serve the people.“只有当人民成为国家的主人，科学才能为人民服务。”
3.常用于表示先后次序的过渡词语及句子
(1)first,second,third…第一，第二，第三
例：First,she had studied chemistry during her sophomore and junior years.Second,she never missed a class.Third,she performed every required experiment in all her chemistry courses.Fourth,she always worked hard.Her classmates were sure that she would win top award in Chemistry during her senior year at the university.“首先，她在一二年级时就选修了化学课程。其次，她从不误课。再有，她认真完成每一次化学试验。还有，她学习非常刻苦。因而同学们确信她在高年级时会获得学校化学大奖。”
(2)To begin with…,moreover…,finally…，首先…，此外…，最后…
例：There are a few reasons for his decision of studying law.To begin with,he is very interested in social affairs and it seems the best way to enable him to engage in these activities.Moreover,his father is a lawyer.He has always encouraged him to do something similar.Finally,he is sure he can get a job after graduation.“他决定学法律有几方面的原因：首先，他对社会事物感兴趣，学习法律有助于他参与这些活动。此外，他父亲是个律师，一直鼓励他从事同样的职业。最后，他确信毕业后能找到工作。”
(3)Meanwhile同时
例：Meanwhile,the better skills and knowledge children possess,the more opportunities they will be ensured.“同时，孩子们的技艺与知识掌握得越好，今后的机会就越多。”
(4)since then自此之后
例：Since then,the Olympics turned out to be an instrument of peace and freedom for small nations.“自此之后，奥林匹克运动成为小国争取和平和自由的工具。”
(5)Therefore因而
例：Therefore,if this is included in good education that parents are seeking now,their children will be definitely ensured a bright future.“因而，如果父母们在其为孩子们寻求的良好教育中加入这一点，他们的子女肯定会有一个光辉灿烂的未来。”
4.常用于表示因果关系及分析原因的过渡词语与句子
(1)As a result由于…结果
例：Her performance in college was excellent.As a result,she has got a satisfactory job.“由于她在大学成绩优异，她找到一份令人满意的工作。”
(2)Due to由于
例：My trip to Guang Zhou and Shen Zhen has to be cancelled due to the financial problem.“由于财务问题，我去广州和深圳的旅行取消了。”
(3)consequently结果，因此
例：The government was unwilling to risk a conflict with that neibouring country,and consequently,promised to sign the treaty.“该国政府不愿冒险与邻国发生冲突，因此答应签署条约。”
(4)One may criticise……for……，but the real cause of…lies deeper人们可以因为…批评…，但是…的真正原因在更深层次
例：One may criticise the school authorities for the fire accident,but the real reason of the accident lies deeper.“人们可以就火灾事故批评校领导，但事故还有更深的原因。”
(5)Among…reasons,one should be emphasized that…在众多的原因中，其中一点给予强调…
例：Among the most important reasons,one reason should be emphasized that large pieces of cultivated land have been occupied,which results in the grain shortage.“在许多重要的原因中，其中一点应强调的是造成粮食减产是因为大量的可耕地被占用。”
5.常用于比较和对比的过渡词
(1)unlike…与…不同
例：Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.“与口头英语不同，笔头英语比较正规。”
(2)In contrast…与之相比
例：In contrast with Tom,Mario seldom studies harder.“与汤姆比，玛里奥很少努力学习。”
(3)On the other hand…另一方面
例：The life expectancy in developing countries has increased during the past thirty years.On the other hand,the infant mortality has decreased from twenty percent to ten percent in the same period.“发展中国家的期望寿命在过去的30年间都增长了。另一方面婴儿死亡率同期由20%下降到10%。”
(4)Likewise同样
例：Plenty of food must be packed for the journey；likewise,warm clothes will also be needed.“要带上旅行中吃的食品，同样也需要带上御寒保暖的衣服。”
(5)similarly同样
例：If only one can make his audience understood,it seems insignificant if one makes some mistakes in his oral English;similarly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind or even hardly notice the speakers mistakes.“只要能使听众听明白，在口头英语中出一些错误是无关紧要的，同样作为听众也只对讲话者的意思感兴趣，根本不介意或几乎注意不到讲话者所犯的口语错误。”
六、对考生的几点建议
以下几方面是考生在复习准备期间和考试时应特别注意的：
(一)考前准备
考生在考前应写几篇短文，按照本书提供的练习，先找自己感兴趣的题目写。对一些从没写过英语作文的考生来说，要克服畏难情绪，写第一篇作文时，考生有可能出现较多较严重的错误，但不要紧，因为只有迈出第一步，才能取得更大的进步，否则会永远停留在不会写的水平上。建议考生自己动笔，写前不要看范文，可以参考一下写作提示，写完后再与范文对照。另外，不要死记硬背范文，考生应从范文中找出自己喜好和需要的句型或词汇记忆，因为作文没有唯一的标准答案，只要写得好就会得高分。
(二)避免写错句
作文要表达清楚，错句、语病太多肯定影响表达思想。因而考生在写作时一定要首先做到尽可能地减少错误，在此基础上才可以考虑有一些句式的变化。如果为了追求句式的变化而出现一些本来可以避免的错误，同样会影响成绩。同时，写作时还应避开自己不会用英文表达的思想，使用自己有把握的句型和词汇，这样才能更好地避免错误。
(三)篇幅适中
由于写作的时间只有30分钟，篇幅要求100词左右，因此考生在确定段落的主题句之后，只要围绕段落的中心思想写三至五句，把意思表达清楚即可。一般情况下，一篇三段文的短篇，各段的长度应相差不多，不应在前二段中花太多的时间，而后一段只匆匆写了一句，这样做也会影响成绩。
(四)修改定稿
修改定稿是考生在考场应试时决不能缺少的一步。考生在30分钟的写作考试中应留出2至3分钟，把自己的作文通读一遍，检查错句及语病。相当多的考生是能分辨错误的，只是写时未加注意，只要认真检查，许多常见错误如主谓一致问题、大小写问题、拼写及标点符号等都是可以自己更正的。如果考生在平时的写作训练中抓住这一环节养成习惯，正式考试时就不会忽视修改定稿了。
一、评分标准
写作评分标准主要围绕四个方面评判：1.内容要切题；2.能正确表达思想；3.意义连贯；4.无重大语法错误。批改作文时，主要从内容和语言两个方面进行综合评判。内容和语言是一个统一体。作文应表达题目所规定的内容，而内容要通过语言来表达。作文是否切题，是否充分表达思想，和语言上的错误是否造成理解上的障碍有密切的关系。下面就评分标准的四个方面分别加以说明。
(一)内容切题
在目前常见的作文题目中，内容切题一般包括两个方面。一是写作内容要围绕题目规定的话题展开。比如“A Fiveday Week”(五天工作制)，文章的内容应围绕五天工作制进行论述，与其无关的内容，当以跑题论处，但此种现象并不多见。其二，在有些作文题中还包括提纲如：
Fire Accidents in Big Cities
Outline：1.Present Situation
2.Causes
3.Measures
这种带提纲的作文题目不仅要求考生根据标题写作，而且要根据提纲规定的内容和范围展开各个段落，不能按自己的思路发挥。考生在这方面出的问题比较多。如1994年考研作文题是：On Making Friends(论交友)，其三段的提纲分别是：1.The need for friends 2.True Friendship 3.My principle in making friends。第三段的提纲要求考生围绕我交友的原则进行议论，然而有个别考生在段中这样写道：
The former paragraph has shown my principle in making friends in some way.Furthermore,what I want to say is that one good friend is enough.
该考生把应放在第三段中论述的内容写在第二段中，第三段就没内容可写了。这类命题作文要求考生按规定和要求写作，不能按自己的想法随意更改，写上段作文的考生不仅第三段没有扣题，第二段也没有做到内容切题。一篇内容切题的作文应能既围绕题目，又能在各段扣准提纲，才真正符合内容切题的要求。下面这一段是另一学生的作文，都是第三段，内容切题，恰当地扣住了“我交友的原则”的写作要求：
When I choose friends,I do not care what work they do or what social background they are from,but I do notice those little things which reveal one′s characters.I would make sure that we really care for each other,so that no matter how much time goes by without seeing each other,I know my friends will always be there,ready to help if I need them,And I know we are true friends indeed.
(二)能正确地表达思想
一篇好短文能使读者一目了然。文章的思路应清楚，逻辑性强，能准确表达作者的思想。请对比下面两段：
Have you a bike?Taking a bike is a good way,most people think.But in university it seems not as good as other places.Bikes are possible to be stolen now and then.Having a bike isn′t always good enough for us to buy one.
上段作者的思路紊乱不清，字里行间不仅有许多语病，而且也没能把思想表达清楚。读后仍不知作者在表达什么思想、观点，因而这样的段落只能得0分。请看下段：
It is very convenient to use bikes in China.Bikes don′need fuel,nor a garage or a large parking lot.Bikes can go through narrow streets and their prices are low.So bikes are the most popular vehicles in China today.
上段的作者以其简单的词汇、简洁的语言、清楚的思路正确地表达了思想，使读者观后能即刻领会作者的思想。
要能正确地表达思想，考生还应掌握一些写作技巧，如写好段落主题句，展开段落的方法，写好段尾句等。此外还应掌握一定的词汇量和习惯表达法。
(三)意义连贯
文章的层次要分明，条理要清楚，上下文之间、词与词、句与句之间要上下连贯，前后呼应，才能使文章结构严谨，思路清晰、有条理。
下面这个段落是一篇文章的第三段。文章的标题是：Good Health；提纲是1.Importance of good health；2.Ways to keep fit；3.My own practice。根据第三段的提纲“我的做法”，一个考生这样写：
I don′t eat meat much.Every morning I take the long run and in my spare time I like playing tennis and volleyball.In this way I keep good health and lead a happy life.
上段基本切题，包括提纲要点，表达也基本清楚，但是表达不够连贯。第一句话让人读起来感觉有些突然，分析第一句，作者没有把意思表达清楚，作者的“我吃肉不多”一定含有这样的意思：我饮食素淡，吃蔬菜水果多，吃肉少。如果能把这层意思写出来，文章的连贯性也就体现出来了。作者的第二句是从体育锻炼方面来表明自己是如何保持健康的，这应是本段中的又一层意思，在这里如能加一个过渡词，会使文章过渡自然流畅。请看下面经过修改的段落：
As for me(1),I enjoy a good health as I keep a simple diet with more vegetables,fruit and less meat.Moreover,I do some exercises whenever I have time such as long distance running,playing tennis or volleyball.As a result(2),I have been a top student all through the four years in the university.So good health is important to everyone(3).
(1)发挥了承上启下的作用，没有这样一个介词短语，从第二段过渡到第三段就会显得生硬一些。(2)也起到了连贯作用，在上述两方面保持健康的方法介绍完后，应该进一步写出所产生的结果，这结果就是对全段的总结概括。(3)对文章的标题及开头起了首尾呼应的作用。
(四)无重大语法错误
重大语法错误一般指时态不一致、主语谓语单复数形式不一致、用词不当等，这些问题的存在说明考生在平时的英语学习中很少练习写作，有人甚至从没写过作文，因而出现各种各样语法错误是可以理解的。考生应在考前多进行这方面的训练，一些语法错误在实践中是可以纠正过来的。下面举几例常见错误。
病句及其分析：
1.So colleg e provid e the best condition for students.
此句的主谓语不一致。因为句子的意思是泛指大学为学生提供了最好的学习环境，这里的主语college应变为复数。这类错误极为常见。
2.Going to college does not followed that We′ll have a splendid future.
此句的主语是现在分词短语，全句的意思是：上大学并不表示我们的未来就一定会光辉灿烂。does not后应跟动词原型follow。
3.Second,have a part time job for poor student is a good way to help reduce his family burden.
此句中有两处错误。have a part time job不能直接作主语，可以改为不定式作主语to have a part time job,或者动名词作主语having a part time job。第二处错误是poor student。普通名词前应有冠词a或the,如前面没有冠词，名词应是复数形式。在这里可选用不定冠词，a poor student,或者poor students。在此句中为了与后半句中的his呼应将其改为a poor student为好。
4.In recent years,fake goods have been discovered more and more in the market.
第四句是中文式的英文，这是考生作文中的常见错误。按照英语的习惯可改为More and more fake goods have been discovered in the market in recent years.
5.The first hand I think is that law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced.
第五句中的The first hand是错的，应改为On the one hand；I think是插入成分，在写作中应尽量不使用这样的插入成分；law 前应有冠词，此句经修改后是：On the one hand,a law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced.
二、写作技巧
一篇好的短文应该观点明确，思路清晰，论述有力、准确，语言正确，文字简洁、流畅、连贯，结构严谨。短文是由段落组成，因此写好段落是写好短文的关键。
段落的组成分为三部分，主题句(Topic Sentence),推展句(Development Sentences)和结论句(Concluding Sentence)。下面分别就这三方面进行详解。
(一)主题句
1.主题句的作用
主题句是全段的核心句，读者通过主题句能了解段落的中心思想。一个好的主题句还能限制话题所谈论的范围，表明段落展开的方向及方法。在英语文章中，围绕主题句展开的段落很多。下面两段摘自1995年的阅读试题。
A job applicant has the responsibility for ascertaining certain types of information prior to the interview. First,the applicant should know what kind of job he wants and how that job relates to his career objective.It is important that the applicant be able to state his reasons for wishing to work for a particular company.Second,the applicant should seek as much information as possible concerning the company.Relevant information for the applicant to locate includes such items as the location of the home and regional offices,the financial status of the company,plans for expansion,and company philosophy.Information about most major corporations is available in reference books and periodicals.
上段第一句是段落的主题句，句子的大意是：申请工作的人在接受面试前有责任了解某些方面的信息。主题句中的关键词是ascertaining certain types of information。紧接着，文章围绕主题句从两方面展开，论述了申请人应了解两类信息。
If Europeans thought a drought was something that happened only in Africa,they know better now. After four years of belownormal rainfall (in some cases only 10 percent of the annual average), vast areas of France,Spain,Portugal,Belgium,Britain and Ireland are dry and barren .Water is so low in the canals of northern France that waterway traffic is forbidden except on weekends.Oyster growers in Britain report a 30 percent drop in production because of the loss of fresh water in local rivers necessary for oyster breeding.In southeastern England,the rolling green hills of Kent have turned so brown that officials have been weighing plans to pipe in water from wales.In Portugal,farmers in the southern Alentejo region have held prayer meetings for rain—so far,in vain.
上段中第二句是主题句，它点明了全段的中心思想，即：四年来，法国、西班牙、葡萄牙、比利时，英国及爱尔兰的降雨量低于常年，这些国家的广大地区都严重缺水。下面的各句都是围绕这一主题展开的。
从上面两段中我们可以看到英语的段落只能有一个中心思想，如要再论述其他与该段中心思想无关的内容应另起一段。
2.主题句的位置
主题句的位置可以在段首：
London′s weather is very strange .It can rain several times a day;each time the rain may come suddenly after the sun is shining brightly.The air is damp(潮湿的)and chill(冷的)right through July.On one March afternoon on Hampton Heath last year it rained three times,there was one hail(冰雹)storm,and the sun shone brilliantly—all this within two hours′s time.It is not unusual to see men and women rushing down the street on a sunny morning with umbrellas on their arms.No one knows what the next few moments will bring.
主题句的位置可以在段落中间：
Just as I settle down to read or watch television,he demands that I play with him.If I get a telephone call,he screams in the background or knocks something over.I always have to hang up to find out what′s wrong with him, Babysitting with my little brother is no fun. He refuses to let me eat a snack(快餐)in peace.Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat.Then,when he finally grows tired,it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep.
主题句的位置可以在段尾：
Doctors are of the opinion that most people cannot live beyond 100 years,but a growing number of scientists believe that the aging process can be controlled.There are more than 12 000 Americans over 100 years old,and their numbers are increasing each year.DrJames Langley of Chicago claims that,theoretically and under ideal(理想的)conditions,animals,including man,can live six times longer than their normal period of growth.A person′s period of growth lasts about 25 years.If Dr.Langley′s theory is accurate(准确的), future generations can expect a life span(寿命)of 150 years .
主题句的位置可在段首段尾同时出现：
Good manners are important in all countries,but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country .Americans eat with knives and forks(叉)；Japanese eat with chopsticks(筷子).Americans say“Hi”when they meet;Japanese bow.Many American men open doors for women;Japanese men do not.On the surface,it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan,and in a way this is true.But in any country,the only manners that are important are those involving one person′s behavior toward another person.In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country .
(以上4段摘自大学英语精读课本)
主题句出现在段落首或尾完全由写作需要而定。一般地说来，写这样100多词的小短文把主题句放在段首更有利于考生扣准中心思想展开论述。
3.怎样写好主题句
主题句在段落中有着举足轻重的作用。因此写好主题句是写好段落的关键。在构思主题句时要注意以下三个方面：
(1)主题句首先应是一个完整的句子，任何词组或修饰成分都不能作主题句。如：More burdens,就不是一个完整的句子。Reading is thought to be a kind of conversation between the reader
and the text，则是一个比较好的主题句。
(2)主题句不应太笼统概括。如：William Shakespeare is great这句话很笼统，对段落如何展开没有指导和限定作用，因而不能作主题句。如改为：William Shakespeare wrote several historic plays,则下文就能围绕莎氏的历史剧展开论述了。
(3)主题句不能太具体。如：The dictionary is small，句子如果太琐碎具体就失去进一步展开的意义了。
(4)各段的主题句应相互照应。在以 No Smoking为题的作文中，各段的主题句分别是：
Smoking is harmful.
Smoking does not only harm the smokers but also people around them.
Therefore,smoking is a bad habit.
第二段的主题句用not only，but also连接词语沟通了上下两段的内容。第三段的Therefore又起了承上启下的作用，使全篇融为一体。
(二)段落的展开
展开段落的方法有很多种，在这里我们仅介绍几种常用方法。
1.依据归纳法或演绎法进行论述
依据归纳法展开段落是指在段落中先引用具体事实或因由进行阐述或论说，进而得出结论。演绎法则是由一般推出特殊情况的结论。
下面这一段落是用归纳法展开的段落。最后一句是结论，也是主题句。
And that is exactly what reading a book should be：a conversation between you and the auther.Presumably,he knows more about the subject than you do;naturally,you will have the proper humility as you approach him.But don′t let anybody tell you that a reader is supposed to be solely on the receiving end.Understanding is a twoway operation;learning doesn′t consist in being an empty receptacle.The learner has to question himself and the teacher.He even has to argue with the teacher,once he understands what the teacher is saying.And marking a book is literally an expression of your differences,or agreements of opinion,with the author.
2.依据重要性展开段落
依据思想或事实或理由的重要性的先后次序进行论述，可以从次要至重要，也可以从重要至次重要。下面段落是以次重要至重要的方法进行论述的。作者首先指出(医生)对病人撒谎不仅对医生本人不好，也会伤害同事，进而会有损于整个医疗事业。
Lies also do harm to those who tell them:harm to their integrity and,in the long run,to their credibility.Lies hurt their colleagues as well.The suspicion of deceit undercuts the work of the many doctors who are scrupulously honest with their patiens;it contributes to the spiral of lawsuits and of “defen sive medicine”,and thus it injures,in turn,the entire medical profession.
3.依据比较和对比法进行论述
一般地说，比较是指对事物的相同方面进行比较；对比是指对比事物的差异或不同方面。下面两段就采用了对比方法。这两段将口头英语与书面英语的不同方面作了比较，两段的观点都一一对应，比如：Oral English is imformal while written English is comparatively formal就是一对观点的对比。另外，两段之间用unlike oral Englsh承接，既让段落过渡自然，又使对比强烈。
First of all,oral English is usually considered informal.So no matter how poor one′s language is and how strange and foreign one′s pronunciation is,it seems insignificant if only one can make his audience understood.Secondly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind,or even hardly notice how many grammatical mistakes the speaker makes.Furthermore,oral English is also regarded adaptable.When we cannot express something precisely,we may give the explanation of it instead,or correct the mistakes on the spot.So oral English gives less chances of misunderstanding.
Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.It requires good spelling and perfect grammar.Poor spelling and too many grammatical mistakes will put readers in a puzzling difficulty.They would be confused about what writers are getting at.In addition,once the words are printed on the paper and handed to whoever the person concerned,writers can no longer make any changes.To avoid this,one has to pay much attention to spelling,practise grammer and write clearly—constructed paragraphs.As a result it will take longer time and much more efforts to communicate in written English than in oral English.
4.依据时间的先后进行论述
依据时间的先后次序展开段落，就是完全按照事物实际发展的时间先后进行论述。如：下面两段就是以时间为序介绍鹿的生长过程。随着夏季一天天过去，又随着秋去冬来，鹿的新陈代谢也随着季节的推移而变化。
As the summer progresses and the fawns grow,they become less dependent on their mother′s milk and more dependent on growing plants as food sources.The adult males spend the summer growing antlers and getting fat.Both males and females continue to eat high quality food in the fall in order to deposit body fat for the winter.In the case of does and fawns,a great deal of energy is expended either in milk production or in growing,and fat is not accumulated as quickly as it is in full grown males.Fat reserves are like bank accounts to be drawn on in the winter when food supplies are limited and sometimes difficult to reach because of deep snow.
As fall turns into winter,other changes take place.Fawns lose their spotted coat.Hair on all the deer becomes darker and thicker.The change in the hair coats is usually complete by September and maximum hair depths are reached by November or December when winter becomes cold.
5.依据空间顺序展开段落
依据空间的次序进行论述应是有序地由远至近或由近至远，由上至下或由下至上对事物进行描写。下面的例子描写了一幅美丽宁静的夜景。作者先描写空中的月亮，再随洒向大地的月光写到湖四周随风摇曳的树枝，又由青蛙的叫声把读者引到了湖的中央，最后结尾讲：这是一个多么迷人的夜晚。这个段落文字简洁流畅，有序地按空间顺序由上写到下，由外写到里。读者可在平时的练习中注意模仿。
It is a beautiful and quiet night.The moon is like a disc hanging on the dark sky,which casts its light on everything.Around the lake are some trees,their slender leaves billowing in the gentle wind.There must be some frogs in the middle of the lake,whose endless singing can be heard clearly.What an attractive night!
(三)写好结尾句
段落结尾或文章的结尾的方法很多，比如在文章的结论段提出问题，让读者自己去解答；引用谚语或名人名言进一步印证作者的观点；或将前面所讲的内容重点摘述等。在这里仅介绍几种适合写短文结尾的常用方法。
1.回答段落主题句中暗示的问题
如下面段落的第一句作为主题句阐明了做摘要的全过程显示(一个人)的决策能力。在文章的结尾作者以答复的口气作结论说：根据你在做笔记时所投入的时间和精力，你做摘要的效率会得到相应的提高。
The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.
2.呼应主题句中的关键词，使用关键词的同义词重申段落的中心思想
下面段落的第一句为主题句，其关键词是famous。在结尾句中可使用它的同义词wellknown作结论。
Our university is one of the most famous universities in China.It is an old university whose origins can be traced back to 1938,when it was first built up in Yanan.Now,it is located in the northwest of Beijing.As a university of liberal arts,it has 25 departments,more than 50 majors,about 7 000 students and 4 000 teachers.It also plays a leading role in social science.In short,our university is wellknown both at home and abroad.
3.将段落中所论述的内容以摘要的方式进行总结
下面段落阐述了三方面的内容：environment,goods和service,可以用连接词not only…but also将三方面概括为一句作为结论句。
Walking into those luxury shopping centers,people will be fascinated by the beautiful decorations,graceful environment and elegant goods.There are various things for people to select:fashionable clothes,lovely stationery or precious jewelries.Besides people will be warmly greeted by salesmen and women who will offer a satisfactory service.In a word,such shopping centers provide not only pleasant environment,abundant goods but also excellent service.
4.以提问的方式结束段落
下面的段落讲述吃早饭的重要性，结尾句作者设问：如果不吃早饭或凑合吃一口会怎么样?这样的结尾为下一段不吃早饭的危害作了铺垫。
Many health experts consider breakfast to be the most important meal of the day.If we eat a good breakfast,we′ll have the energy and nutrients we need to begin our working day vigorously.It is especially true if one′s work involves mental activity.However,what happens if people skip breakfast or substitute a simple one for a high qualified meal?
5.使用过渡词给文章或段落作结论
如：In brief,tourism,according to my opinion,should not be encouraged.这里in brief起总结作用。Certaily,close cooperation will make the world a better place.这里的certainly发挥了强调及过渡作用。
以上两种方法简单易学，注意在实践中应用。
三、图表作文
图表作文与写议论文和说明文的写作方法大致相同，唯一的差异就是如何利用浓缩在图表中的信息阐明图中各种数据和信息所反映的问题。因此考生在写此类作文时只有在看懂图表的基础上才能动笔写。如果不能全部领会图中信息，在写作中就会出现这样或那样的问题。因此考生在阅读图表时
应注意以下两点：
第一，掌握图表上提供的信息及每一栏上面的小标题的标注，由此弄清设计者想通过图表反映出的信息、问题或现象。
第二，在掌握全部信息的基础上，着手分析这些信息和表上的具体数字。通过分析与对比，抓住问题，便可以开拓思路，构思文章的布局、段落的划分及上下文的连贯等。
段落的划分可根据内容而定。一般第一段应对图表做一简要的概述，点出所要涉及的问题；中间段落应对图表的重要问题进行分析；结尾段对全文做一小结。
请看下面图表：
FOOD\YEAR
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Grain
49%
47%
46.5%
45%
45%
Milk
10%
11%
11%
12%
13%
Meat
17%
20%
22.5%
23%
21%
Fruit and Vege tables
24%
22%
20%
20%
21%
Total
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
审题：
这张图表介绍了1986年～1990年人们食品结构发生的变化。食品包括四大类：粮、奶、肉及水果蔬菜。从图表上看，粮食消费量在逐年下降，奶和肉的消费量在上升，可见人民生活水平提高了。蔬菜水果消费量下降的原因可否归结为物价上扬问题。根据上述分析我们可以将文章分为3～5段。
According to the above table,we can see that some changes have taken place in people′s diet since 1986,which clearly indicates the improvement of people′s living standard.
One of the big changes is the decrease of grain consumption with 49 percent in 1986 and 45 percent in 1990.On people′s dinner tables the traditional dominant food—grain has given some way to milk and meat which were seldom seen on dinner tables before.Since the economic reform in 1978,various kinds of food have become popular in Chinese families.
However,there is a steady reduction of fruit and vegetables with 24 percent in 1986 and a three point drop by 1990.But this is not the main trend.As the living standard of the Chinese people is rising,we look forward to further changes in people′s diet.The proportion of fruit and vegetables as well as milk and meat will definitely increase in the coming yesrs.
四、写摘要
摘要写作是一种实用的写作技能。写摘要就是要用简洁的语言概述一个问题、事件或观点。它的用处十分广泛，在写论文、报告、总结或演讲稿时都需要这一技能。
摘要的特点是简明扼要，因此写摘要时要对全文进行选择取舍，抓住重点，突出新观点，强调文章的目的和主要结论。
要写好摘要，应注意以下三方面：
第一，要理解原文，了解原文的总体结构和主导思想以及作者的意图。
第二，要确认每一段的主题句及重要细节。
最后，要注意全文的结尾，因为作者常在结尾归纳总结全文或重申主题。
选择取舍也是写好摘要的关键。一般的细节，冗长的说明，修饰成分等可删节或简化。摘要不仅要简洁，还应(和其他文章一样)完整流畅。
原文：
The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.
第一段的中心思想指出写摘要的过程是检查一个人的阅读理解水平的过程。它包括对文章总体结构的掌握，对主题思想的理解。(注意：本文的重点是写摘要，因此本段涉及的“决策能力”可以不提。)
Your final summary should reflect clearly and accurately what the author has said.An inaccurate summary may be worse than no summary at all.An effective method of testing the quality of your summary is to set it aside for a month or two and then reread it.If it still recalls the essential information for you and seems to express the material in a clear and exact manner,you have done a good job.If it does not,make another attempt.This time you will do a better job.This method,incidentally,may well be applied to other types of writing.Many young writers have been advised to put their material aside for a while.If a piece of writing seems as good a year or two later as the day they finished it,they can begin to feel that it will stand the test of time.The same thing,of course,applies to what someone else has written and you have read.If you think a book you read several years ago was the best you have known,reread it.Don′t be surprised if you find yourself sadly disappointed.
第二段的主要观点是摘要应简洁准确。如果写得不好，就不能接受时间的考验。段中列举几个事例都是为了说明上述观点，写摘要时可删去。
Good summaries serve many purposes.Everyone,from professional to houseperson,needs and uses them.Doctors may have to summarize a report of their findings in a particular case for a medical board.They will have to read the summaries of other doctors and summaries of the latest medical research in their field.Lawyers need to prepare a summary,or brief,of their case before they present it in court.Their summary usually takes the form of a sentence outline,and many an early career is hurt by an inability to present a clear and accurate brief.A junior executive may write a summary of a long report for the president of the company.Electrical engineers will summarize their findings to formulate their plans.A student prepares summaries for use in a term paper.
第三段的中心思想表达了写摘要的广泛用途。
摘要：
The ability to write summaries reflects one′s reading comprehension level.If one has a better understanding of the structure of an article and a better grasp of the main idea,he can write the summary efficiently.Moreover,a summary,if accurate and wellwritten,can stand the test of time.Many professions require their staff to possess the ability of writing summaries such as doctors,lawyers,junior executives and students.
五、常用过渡词和句型
过渡词在文章中发挥着连接上下文的作用，学会恰当地运用过渡词会使文章连贯、流畅。本节提供的过渡词都是最基本的，考生在时间紧、工作繁忙的情况下，可根据自己的喜好，掌握各类中的二至三个用法即可。
1.常用于文章开始的过渡词语和句子
(1)To begin with首先
例：To begin with,smoking should be banned in public areas.“首先，公共场所禁止吸烟。”
(2)Generaby speaking一般地说，总体上说
例：Generally speaking,it is the best policy to spend more money on libraries.“总的说来，加大图书馆的投资是良策。”
(3)First of all第一，首先
例：First of all,many people in remote areas still live in poverty.“第一，居住在边远地区的许多人仍生活在贫困之中。”
(4)With(the development/progress/growth)of(economy/society)…随着(经济、社会)的(发展、进步、增长)…
例：With the development of society,women′s role has become more important than ever before in daily life.“随着社会的发展，妇女在社会生活中比以往发挥着更加重要的作用。”
(5)Recently近来
例：Recently，the problem(conflict,production)of grain shortage has become the world focus.“近来粮食短缺问题已成为全球关注的焦点。”
2.常用于文章结尾的过渡词和句子
(1)In conclusion最后，在结束时
例：In conclusion,the international agreement should be made to prevent the world from war.“最后，应达成国际协定使世界避免战争。”
(2)In brief简言之
例：In brief,family planning is of vital importance in China.“简言之，计划生育对中国具有重要意义。”
(3)In a word总之
例：In a word,without mutual understanding,true friendship does not exist.“总之，没有相互理解，真正的友谊是不存在的。”
(4)It is high time that…到…时候了
例：It is high time that the issue were to be solved so as to promote the economic development.“为了促进经济发展到该解决问题的时候了。”
(5)It is only when…that…只有当…才…
例：It is only when people become the masters of the country that science can serve the people.“只有当人民成为国家的主人，科学才能为人民服务。”
3.常用于表示先后次序的过渡词语及句子
(1)first,second,third…第一，第二，第三
例：First,she had studied chemistry during her sophomore and junior years.Second,she never missed a class.Third,she performed every required experiment in all her chemistry courses.Fourth,she always worked hard.Her classmates were sure that she would win top award in Chemistry during her senior year at the university.“首先，她在一二年级时就选修了化学课程。其次，她从不误课。再有，她认真完成每一次化学试验。还有，她学习非常刻苦。因而同学们确信她在高年级时会获得学校化学大奖。”
(2)To begin with…,moreover…,finally…，首先…，此外…，最后…
例：There are a few reasons for his decision of studying law.To begin with,he is very interested in social affairs and it seems the best way to enable him to engage in these activities.Moreover,his father is a lawyer.He has always encouraged him to do something similar.Finally,he is sure he can get a job after graduation.“他决定学法律有几方面的原因：首先，他对社会事物感兴趣，学习法律有助于他参与这些活动。此外，他父亲是个律师，一直鼓励他从事同样的职业。最后，他确信毕业后能找到工作。”
(3)Meanwhile同时
例：Meanwhile,the better skills and knowledge children possess,the more opportunities they will be ensured.“同时，孩子们的技艺与知识掌握得越好，今后的机会就越多。”
(4)since then自此之后
例：Since then,the Olympics turned out to be an instrument of peace and freedom for small nations.“自此之后，奥林匹克运动成为小国争取和平和自由的工具。”
(5)Therefore因而
例：Therefore,if this is included in good education that parents are seeking now,their children will be definitely ensured a bright future.“因而，如果父母们在其为孩子们寻求的良好教育中加入这一点，他们的子女肯定会有一个光辉灿烂的未来。”
4.常用于表示因果关系及分析原因的过渡词语与句子
(1)As a result由于…结果
例：Her performance in college was excellent.As a result,she has got a satisfactory job.“由于她在大学成绩优异，她找到一份令人满意的工作。”
(2)Due to由于
例：My trip to Guang Zhou and Shen Zhen has to be cancelled due to the financial problem.“由于财务问题，我去广州和深圳的旅行取消了。”
(3)consequently结果，因此
例：The government was unwilling to risk a conflict with that neibouring country,and consequently,promised to sign the treaty.“该国政府不愿冒险与邻国发生冲突，因此答应签署条约。”
(4)One may criticise……for……，but the real cause of…lies deeper人们可以因为…批评…，但是…的真正原因在更深层次
例：One may criticise the school authorities for the fire accident,but the real reason of the accident lies deeper.“人们可以就火灾事故批评校领导，但事故还有更深的原因。”
(5)Among…reasons,one should be emphasized that…在众多的原因中，其中一点给予强调…
例：Among the most important reasons,one reason should be emphasized that large pieces of cultivated land have been occupied,which results in the grain shortage.“在许多重要的原因中，其中一点应强调的是造成粮食减产是因为大量的可耕地被占用。”
5.常用于比较和对比的过渡词
(1)unlike…与…不同
例：Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.“与口头英语不同，笔头英语比较正规。”
(2)In contrast…与之相比
例：In contrast with Tom,Mario seldom studies harder.“与汤姆比，玛里奥很少努力学习。”
(3)On the other hand…另一方面
例：The life expectancy in developing countries has increased during the past thirty years.On the other hand,the infant mortality has decreased from twenty percent to ten percent in the same period.“发展中国家的期望寿命在过去的30年间都增长了。另一方面婴儿死亡率同期由20%下降到10%。”
(4)Likewise同样
例：Plenty of food must be packed for the journey；likewise,warm clothes will also be needed.“要带上旅行中吃的食品，同样也需要带上御寒保暖的衣服。”
(5)similarly同样
例：If only one can make his audience understood,it seems insignificant if one makes some mistakes in his oral English;similarly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind or even hardly notice the speakers mistakes.“只要能使听众听明白，在口头英语中出一些错误是无关紧要的，同样作为听众也只对讲话者的意思感兴趣，根本不介意或几乎注意不到讲话者所犯的口语错误。”
六、对考生的几点建议
以下几方面是考生在复习准备期间和考试时应特别注意的：
(一)考前准备
考生在考前应写几篇短文，按照本书提供的练习，先找自己感兴趣的题目写。对一些从没写过英语作文的考生来说，要克服畏难情绪，写第一篇作文时，考生有可能出现较多较严重的错误，但不要紧，因为只有迈出第一步，才能取得更大的进步，否则会永远停留在不会写的水平上。建议考生自己动笔，写前不要看范文，可以参考一下写作提示，写完后再与范文对照。另外，不要死记硬背范文，考生应从范文中找出自己喜好和需要的句型或词汇记忆，因为作文没有唯一的标准答案，只要写得好就会得高分。
(二)避免写错句
作文要表达清楚，错句、语病太多肯定影响表达思想。因而考生在写作时一定要首先做到尽可能地减少错误，在此基础上才可以考虑有一些句式的变化。如果为了追求句式的变化而出现一些本来可以避免的错误，同样会影响成绩。同时，写作时还应避开自己不会用英文表达的思想，使用自己有把握的句型和词汇，这样才能更好地避免错误。
(三)篇幅适中
由于写作的时间只有30分钟，篇幅要求100词左右，因此考生在确定段落的主题句之后，只要围绕段落的中心思想写三至五句，把意思表达清楚即可。一般情况下，一篇三段文的短篇，各段的长度应相差不多，不应在前二段中花太多的时间，而后一段只匆匆写了一句，这样做也会影响成绩。
(四)修改定稿
修改定稿是考生在考场应试时决不能缺少的一步。考生在30分钟的写作考试中应留出2至3分钟，把自己的作文通读一遍，检查错句及语病。相当多的考生是能分辨错误的，只是写时未加注意，只要认真检查，许多常见错误如主谓一致问题、大小写问题、拼写及标点符号等都是可以自己更正的。如果考生在平时的写作训练中抓住这一环节养成习惯，正式考试时就不会忽视修改定稿了。