49.  How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?
    A sentence meaning is of-ten considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact state-ment, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de-pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
50.  Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
    A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonol-ogy. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.  For example:
You have left the door wide open.
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.
The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.
The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully per-formed .
51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.
1)      representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:
         (I swear) I have never seen the man before.

         (I state) the earth is a globe.
2)  directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some-thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, or-dering are all specific instances of this class.
        For example:
    Open the window!
3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:
             I promise to come.
         I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
4)  expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:
            I'm sorry for the mess I have made.
5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. For example:
I now declare the meeting open.
52.  What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?
The maxim of quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
2. The maxim of quality
1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
2. The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
The maxim of manner
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .
4. Be orderly.
53.  How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?
         A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?
         B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
    This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implica-ture as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.
       A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?
       B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.
    This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying some-thing that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of qual-ity. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.
           A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?
           B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?
    This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conver-sational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.
              A: Shall we get something for the kids?
              B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.
    This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pro-nouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.

Chapter 7： Historical Linguistics
I.  Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1.  One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages.
2.  Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.
3.  The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English.
4.  Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.
5.  In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases.
6.  In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it.
7.  A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language.
8.  In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language.
9.  The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds.
10.    The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
11.    In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender.
12.    The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.
13.    Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.
14.    “Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.
15.    “fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation.
16.    Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.
17.    Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”.
18.    Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
19.    Language change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules
20.    The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.