Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字
② Logograms（语标书写法）
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.
“Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.
Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)
Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.
Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.
Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.
③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）
When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.
The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)
④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）
Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this rule
The Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the Romans
Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)
⑤ Rebus writing
Robus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.




Chapter 2  What is linguistics?
[A] The definition of linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
Process of linguistic study:
① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;
② Hypotheses are formulated;
③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;
④ A linguistic theory is constructed.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
[B] The scope of linguistics
General linguistics: the study of language as a whole
Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)
Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)
Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)
Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)
Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction
Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use
Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society
Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind
Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning
Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics
[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics
① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
② Synchronic vs. Diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time;
The description of a language as it changes through time.
③ Speech and writing
Spoken language is primary, not the written
④ Langue and parole
Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use
⑤ Competence and performance
Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language

Chapter 3  Phonetics and phonology
[A] The definition of phonetics
Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.
Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.
Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.
Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.
[B] Organs of speech
Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.
Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.
All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).
The important cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity
The oral cavity
The nasal cavity