Moving star        I once was bitten by a dog.
Morning star       Mind you. There is a dog over there.
[D] Major sense relations
① synonymyà the sameness or close similarity of meaning
a. dialectal synonyms——synonyms used in different regional dialects
b. stylistic synonyms——synonyms differing in style
c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
d. collocational synonyms
e. semantically different synonyms
② polysemy——one word that has more than one related meaning
③ homonymy
Homophones: when two words are identical in sound
Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling
Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in
Sound
Etymology
④ hyponymy—— inclusiveness
The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.
The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.
Co-hyponym
⑤ antonymy——oppositeness
Gradable antonyms
Complementary antonyms
Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items
⑥ metonymy
Meaning based on a close connection in everyday experience, of which can be based on a container-contents relation, a whole-part relation, or a representative-symbol relationship
⑦ collocation
Organize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together
⑧ prototypes
The concept of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, not in terms of component features, but in terms of resemblance to the clearest exemplar.
[E] Sense relations between sentences
① X is synonymous with Y
② X is inconsistent with Y
③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)
④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)
⑤ X is a contradiction
⑥ X is semantically anomalous
[F] Componential analysisàa way to analyze lexical meaning
Semantic features: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic features
Phonemeà distinctive features
Show how those words are related in meaning
[G] Predication analysisàa way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech
① the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components)
② Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning
Grammaticality             selectional restrictions
Semantic analysis:
Predication (basic unit)à the abstract meaning of the sentence
Argument(s) 论元     predicate（谓词）
Logical participant(s)   Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentence
The predicate can be regarded as the main element.
Tom smokes.à TOM (SMOKE)à one-place predication
Kids like apples.à KID, APPLE (LIKE)à two-place predication
It’s raining.à (RAIN)à no-place predication

Chapter 8  Pragmatics
[A] The definition of pragmatics
Definition: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.
If it is not, it is semantics.
If it is, it is pragmatics.
[B] Context
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Linguistic contextà co-text
Physical context
[C] Sentence meaning v. utterance meaning
The dog is barking.
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.
If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized.
Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and contextualized.
Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
[D] Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）
Direct speech act
Indirect speech act
Face-threatening
Face-saving
Proposed by British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s
Answer: what do we do when using language?
Constatives: statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable
Performatives: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (perform certain acts)