组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。
16.rules an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.
循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。
17.移位类型
Syntactic   NP-movement=t’s involving the movement of a noun phrase.
Movement   名词短语的移位
                 WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.
                陈述变疑问句
               AUX-…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.
             助动词移位到句首的移位  
18.普遍语法的广义原则
General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition
格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.
名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。
相邻条件—a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.
格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and减set on the Adjacency condition. with English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to减value.
三、问答题
1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.
⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind
⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.

Chapter 5     Semantics     
一、定义
1.命名论The naming theory
  The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.
2.意念论The conceptualist view
  It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
  It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
  It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
5.意义Sense
  It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
6.所指意义Reference
  It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
7.同义词Synonymy
  It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
8.多义词Polysemy
  It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
9.同音(形)异义Homonymy
  It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
10.同音异义Homophones
  It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.
11.同形异义Homographs
  It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.
12.上下义关系Hyponymy
  It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.
13.反义词Antonymy
  It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义
  It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
  this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis   由British Linguist G.Leech提出
  It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.
  Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.
  通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
16.先设前提Presupposition
   It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
17.蕴涵Entailment
   Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
   A: Mark married a blonde heiress.
   B: Mark married a blonde.
二、知识点
1.Major views of meaning study:
   The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar Plato
   The conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力
   The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle of
                           significance
   The Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和 Jill故事阐明
The naming theory的局限性:
⑴It’s only applicable to Nouns only.
⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don’t exist in the real world.    sense
2.Lexical meaning   reference
3.主要的意义关系
Synonymy ;Antonymy; Hyponymy; Polysemy; homonymy
4.                (1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects
Synonyms   (2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style
 分类            (3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning
                   (4)Semantically different synonyms
例子：
(1)British English Lift    Luggage  Lorry   Petrol    Flat         windscreen  torch
  American English Elevator Baggage Truck   Gasoline  Apartment  windshield  flashlight
(2)kick the bucket=pop off=die=pass away=decease
5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.
6. some synonyms differ in their collocation.