Exercise
I.    Match each of the following terms in column A with one of the appropriate definitions in column B:
     Column A                            Column B
1.    structural analysis          A. Syntax is the study of how sentences are constructed or in other
                              words.
2.    Performance               B. The task of the phonological component is to convert each
                          surface structure into a phonetic representation.
3.    PS-rules                  C. He defined form classes in terms of some common ‘recognizable
                              phonetic or grammatical features’ shared by all the members.
4.    Syntactic components        D. It refers to the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of
                              his language or a person’s internalized grammar of his language.
5.    Observational adequacy      E. It is also called an applicability check, which states the structure
                              to which the rule can be applied.
6.    Competence                F. The syntactic component is formed by two parts: the base, and
                              the transformational rules.
7.    syntax                    G. It refers to the instructions which will bring about changes in
                              the structure.
8.    Form classes               H. They are also called rewrite rules. We can use these PS-rules to
                              generate the deep structure of sentences.
9. Phonological component      I. A grammar must account for all and only the permitted
                              sentences of a language. This is called observational adequacy.
10. structural change            J. It is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance, or a
                               person’s actual use of his language.
II.    Explain each of the following terms in no more than 50 words:
1. discovering procedures        2. constituent structure      3. constituent 
4. immediate constituent         5. ultimate constituent      6. construction
7. endocentric construction       8. exocentric construction    9. discontinuous constituent
10. descriptive adequacy         11. generative aspect       12. transformation
13. deep and surface structures    14. selectional restrictions   15. semantic component
III.Develop the each of the following topics into a 200-word essay:
1. Immediate Constituent Analysis
2. Transformational Generative Grammar.

V. Semantics

   本章学习目的要求

  本章是对语义的研究，近代语言学家对语义研究有多种途径，通过对本章的学习要求对几种主要的途径有所了解。对语言意义的研究包括对词义和句义两个方面，通过学习要求了解词汇之间和句子之间的主要语义关系。本章还介绍了近代语言学中对词义研究的一种方法---成分分析法，以及对句子抽象意义的分析方法。
 
语义学基本知识点

1. Semantics 语义学
1.1 What is semantics? 什么是语义学
   Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.
2. Some Views on Semantics 一些有关语义学的观点
2.1 Naming 命名观
One of the oldest notions concerning meaning is the naming theory. According to this theory, the form is a word in a language and the meaning is the object in the world that it ‘stands for’ or ‘refers to’. Words are ‘names’ or ‘labels’ for things. In other words, the semantic relationship holding between words and ‘things’ is the relationship of naming.
2.2 Conceptualism 概念观
The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between words and things; rather they are linked through the mediation of concepts of the mind.
Ogden and Richards saw the relationship between words and things as a semantic triangle. In the diagram, the ‘symbol’ refers to the linguistic element (the word, sentence), the ‘referent’ refers to the object in the world of experience, and ‘thought or ‘reference’ refers to concept.
2.3 Contextualism 语境观
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observable context: the situational context and the linguistic context.
2.4    Behaviourism 行为观
The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield. He argued that the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as ‘the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.’ This view is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill. Bloomfield argued that the meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r……s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it.
2.5    Mentalism 心灵观
  The mentalists view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption that the data needed about language can be supplies by direct resort to intuition. The task of semantics is to explain those data by direct resort to intuition by constructing theories and descriptive rules and categories from which they can be deduced.
III. Lexical Meaning 词汇意义
Sense and Reference 词义和指称
Sense and reference are two terms refer to two very different, though related, aspects of meaning.
Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations. Sense relationships have formed an important part of the study of language. For example, Duck and ducking form a pattern indicating a relationship between adult and young. This shows that sense relations are in fact a part of the semantic structure.
Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements (words, sentences) and the non-linguistic world of experience. Linguists hold the view that reference is essential element of semantics, for semantics concerned largely with the way we relate our language to our experience. Knowledge of semantic structure in a language alone is not sufficient to handle a number of kinds of meaning.
Some linguists suggest that we have two kinds of semantics, one that deals with semantic structure and the other that deals with meaning in terms of our experience outside language. In other words, one is intra-linguistic, which we call sense or sense relations; the other relates to non-linguistic entities, which we call reference.
Synonymy 同义现象
Synonymy is used to mean ‘sameness of meaning’. Strictly speaking, there are no real synonyms and no two words have exactly the same meaning.
a)    Dialectal Synonyms 方言同义词
Synonyms belong to different dialects of the language (e.g. Autumn and fall).
b)    Words Differing in ‘Styles’ or ‘Registers’ 语体或语域差异的同义词
These words have the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meanings. They often express different degrees of formality (e.g. gentleman, man, and chap).