16.   Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.

17.  The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.

18.   In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.

19.   Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.

20.   Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.


III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)
 - 7 -
21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.

22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.

23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.

24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.

25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.

26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.

27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.

28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.

29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.

30.   Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.


IV.    Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)
31.   Blending

32. Allomorph

33.   Closed-class word

34. Morphological rule


V. Answer the following questions. (20%)
35.   How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学， 2003）
36. What are the main features of the English compounds?
VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)
37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，
2004） I II
(1) acronym a. foe


(2)    free morpheme b. subconscious


(3) derivational morpheme c.    UNESCO


(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed


(5) prefix e. calculation
Key:


I.
1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB



II.

11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF
 - 8 -
III.
21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary
23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme
25. close, open 26. back-formation
27. conversion 28. morpheme
29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound root
IV.
31.   Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)

32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.

33.   Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.

34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.


V. Omit.
VI.
37.
(1) c (2) a (3)e (4) d (5) b
Chapter 4 Syntax
I. Choose the best answer. (20%)
1. The sentence structure is ________.
A. only linear B. only hierarchical
   C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical
2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.
A. large B. small C. finite   D. infinite
3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.
A. lexical B. morphological   C. linguistic D. combinational
4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati.cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
A. right   B. wrong C. grammatical   D. ungrammatical
5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.
A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition  D. subordinator
6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.
A. recursive   B. grammatical   C. social D. functional
7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.
A. how words and phrases form sentences.
 B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words
 C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences
 D. all of the above.
 - 9 -
8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.
A. the city B. Rome   C. city D. the city Rome
9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.
A. endocentric B. exocentric C. subordinate D. coordinate
10.  The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.
A. simple B. coordinate   C. compound D. complex
II.  Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)
11.  Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.

12.  The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

13.  In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.

14.  Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.

15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.

16.  In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.

17.  In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.

18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.

19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.

20.  It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.


III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)
21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.

23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.

24.  The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.

25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

26.  In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.

27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.

28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.

29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.

30.  The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.


 - 10 -
IV.  Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)
31.  Syntax

32.  IC analysis

33.  Hierarchical structure

34. Trace theory


V. Answer the following questions. (20%)
35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）

36.  Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）


VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)
37.  Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:
The student wrote a letter yesterday. Key:
I.
1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBA

II.
11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTT

III.
21. simple 22. sentence
23. subject 24. predicate
25. complex 26. embedded
27. open 28. Adjacency
29. Parameters 30. Case
IV.
31.  Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.

32.  IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.

33.  Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.

34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the


 - 11 -
necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.
V.
35. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.

36.


(1) more | beautiful flowers

(2) more beautiful | flowers


Chapter 5 Meaning
[Mainly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]

I. Choose the best answer. (20%)
1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.
A. Plato B. Bloomfield  C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth
2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.
A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism
 C. the naming theory D. behaviorism
3. Which of the following is NOT true?
A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
 B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.
 C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.
 D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.
4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”
A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with
   C. entails   D. presupposes
5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
A. Predication analysis B. Componential analysis
 C. Phonemic analysis   D. Grammatical analysis
6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.
A. gradable antonyms B. relational antonyms
  C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above
7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
 - 12 -
A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense
8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.
A. Polysemy B. Synonymy C. Homonymy   D. Hyponymy
9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.
A. homonyms B. polysemies C. hyponyms D. synonyms
10.  The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.
A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions
 C. semantic rules D. semantic features
II.  Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)
11.  Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.

12.  Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.

15.  Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.

16.  Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.

17.  The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.

18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.

19. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.

20.  In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.


III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)
21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.

22.  The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.

23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.

25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.

26. __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.

27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.

28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called __________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.

30. According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a lan.guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.


 - 13 -
IV.  Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)
31.      Entailment

32.      Proposition

33.      Componential analysis

34.      Reference


V.     Answer the following questions. (20%)
35.     What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?    Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）

36.     What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）


VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)
37.     For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the
(a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of

(a) words and (b) words.

(1)     a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chief

b.     bull, rooster, drake, ram

(2)     a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, car

b.     milk, alcohol, rice, soup

(3)     a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractor


b. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学， 1999） Key:

I.
1~5 ABDDB 6~10 CACDA


II.
11~15 FFTFT 16~20 TFTTT


III.


21. Semantics     22. direct


23. Reference     24. synonyms


25. homophones     26. Relational


27. Componential     28. selectional


29. argument     30. naming


IV.


31.      Entailment: It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified with the



 - 14 -
following sentences:
a.     Tom divorced Jane.