 S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP and PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on both sides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive. Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structure can grow endlessly.

     Sub-categorization of the lexicon.

     The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smaller classes according to their syntactic characteristics is called sub-categorization.

     Transformational rules (T-rules)

     Particle movement T-rule

     John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.

     Replacement T-rule

     John beat Tom. He beat Tom.

     The house needs repairing (to be repaired).

     Insertion T-rule

     A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in the pond.

     Deletion T-rule

     They came in and (they) sat down.

     Copying T-rule

     He is coming, isn’t he?

     He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?

     Reflexivization T-rule

     I wash me (myself).

     TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.

     Systematic-functional grammar

     Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar

     M. A. K. Halliday

     Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.

     Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.

     The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realized through forms.

     The three meta-functions of language

     Ideational function

     Interpersonal function

     Textual function

     The transitivity system of language

     Elements

     Process

     Participants

     Circumstances

     Categorization of reality

     Doing – material process

     Processes involving physical actions: walking, running, throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.

     Actor, goal and circumstance

     Being – relational process

     Processes representing a relation being set up between two separate entities.

     Be (identifying), have (attributive)

     Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed

     Sensing – mental process

     Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving, imagining, wanting, liking, etc.

     Senser and phenomenon

     Less central types of linguistic process

     Verbal processes – saying something

     Sayer and receiver

     Behavioural processes – active conscious processes

     Behaver and range

     Existential processes – existence of an entity

     Existent

     Mood and modality

     Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonal function. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and the finite.

     Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by the grammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization and modulation.

     Theme and rheme

     Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.

     Examples: