f)    Presupposition 前提
Presupposition refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker does not assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentence.
In a word, the componential analysis with the addition of predication analysis can serve as an adequate semantic theory to provide semantic representations for whole sentences. It can also enable us to make predications regarding entailment, inconsistency, contradiction and other meaning relations.


Exercises
I. Match each of the following terms in column A with one of the appropriate definitions in column B:
 Column A                   Column B
1.    Semantics            A. Synonymy is used to mean ‘sameness of meaning’.
2.    Inconsistency           B. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the
                           two items are called relational opposites.
3.    Synonymy             C. Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate
                           forms between the two members of a pair.
4.    subordinate predication   D. It refers to the case that two, or more meanings may be
                           associated with the same linguistic form.
5.    polysemy              E. Presupposition refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker does
                           not assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentence.
6.    Antonymy              F. It is suggested in the theory that a predicate may govern not only
                           arguments, but other predicates.
7.    relational opposites       G. It refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set of
                           different meanings.
8.    homonymy             H. Inconsistency means that a relation of inconsistency exists between
                            two propositions whenever the predicate of one is incompatible
                            with that of the other.
9.    gradable opposites        I. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in
                           language.
10. presupposition          J. Antonymy refers to the ‘oppositeness of meaning’ between lexemes.
II. Explain each of the following terms in no more than 50 words:
1. reference              2. entailment            3. semantic triangle
4. hyponymy             5. predication           6. behaviorism     
7. downgraded predication  8. sentence meaning      9. selectional restriction   
10. naming theory         11. sense
III. Develop each of the following topics into a 200-word essay
1. What distinction, would you drawn between sense and reference?
3.    Explain and exemplify componential analysis and predication analysis.

VI. Pragmatics 语用学

本章学习目的要求

语用学是语言学研究中一个比较新的领域,语用学的兴起是语言学,特别是语义学发展和深入的结果。通过本章的学习，首先要对语用学和传统语义学研究之间的关系，以及诸如语境和话语意义等语用研究中的一些基本概念有所了解。同时，还要求对语用研究中最重要的理论———言语行为理论，和最主要的一条原则———会话原则有初步的了解，并能用来解释一些语言现象。

语用学基本知识

1.    What does pragmatics study? 语用学是什么？
Pragmatics is the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.
The development of pragmatics within linguistics is the necessary  consequence of the development of linguistic studies, especially that of semantics. Although both pragmatics and semantics basically study meaning, pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context.
1.1    sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义与话语意义
Sentence meaning refers to the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition. On the other hand, utterance meaning is context-dependent. It is generally regarded as the product of sentence meaning and context; therefore the meaning of an utterance is richer than the meaning of the sentence from which it is derived. Utterance meaning is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.
1.2    Context 语境
Context is an important notion in the pragmatic study of meaning. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. It includes background knowledge, i.e. knowledge of the world, knowledge specific to the situation of communication, as well as knowledge of the language they use.
2.    Speech Act Theory 言语行为理论
The speech act theory proposed by John Austin is an important theory in the study of meaning as related to the context. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking; thus linguistic communication is composed of a succession of acts.
2.1    Constative and Performative Utterances 陈述性话语与行为性话语
Austin first made the primary distinction between two types of utterances: constative and performative. The constative utterance is verifiable and it is either true or false. The performative utterance is used o perform an action and has no true value. But Austin was not satisfied with it; he finally conducted a new model.
2.2    Austin’s New Model 奥斯汀的新模式
According to Austin’s new model, a speaker, while making an utterance, is in most cases performing three acts simultaneously.
a)    A Locutionary Act 以言指事行为
A locutionary act is the act of saying something; it is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
b)    An Illocutionary Act 以言做事行为
An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.
c)    A Perlcutionary Act 以言成事行为
A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
2.3    Searle’s Contributions to the Speech Act Theory 斯尔对言语行为理论的贡献
a)    The Distinction and Relatedness between the Propositional Content and Illocutionary Act
The propositional content of an utterance is constituted by what object is being referred to in the utterance and what action is predicated about the object.
b)    The Classification of Illocutionary Act 以言做事行为的分类
Searle specifies five general types of Illocutionary acts
(1)    Representatives 阐述类
The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition. In other words, while performing this type of act, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.
(2)    Directives 指令类
 Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instance of this class.
(3)    Commissives 承诺类
Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases.