(4)    Expressives 表达类
The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the propositional content. The speaker is expressing his feelings and attitudes towards the existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.
(5)    Declarations 宣布类
 The last class ‘declarations’ has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality.
3.    Principles of Conversation 会话原则
3.1    The Co-operative Principle 合作原则
   In making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guiding principle the Cooperative Principle. He further specifies four maxims:
a)    The Maxim of Quantity 量的准则
(1)    Make your contribution as informative as required.
(2)    Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
b)    The Maxim of Quality 质的准则
(1)    Do not say what you believe to be false.
(2)    Dot not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
c)    The Maxim of Relation 关系准则
Be relevant
d)    The Maxim of Manner 方式准则
(1)    Avoid obscurity of expression.
(2)    Avoid ambiguity
(3)    Be brief.
(4)    Be orderly.
   These maxims are not always strictly observed. Rather, for various reasons they are often violated. Some of these violations give rise to what Grice terms “conversational implicatures”. In other words, when we violate any of these maxims, our language might become indirect.
3.2    The Politeness Principle 礼貌
The cooperative principle explains how conversational implicature is given rise to but it does not tell us why people are often so indirect in conveying what they want to say. This is where the politeness principle comes in. In the most general terms, the politeness principle can be formulated as “maximize” the expression of polite beliefs”, or, in its negative form, “Minimize the expression of impolite beliefs.
The politeness principle seems to have a higher regulative role than the cooperative principle because it requires for smooth and effective communication.



Exercises
I.    Match each of the following terms in column A with one of the appropriate definitions in column B:
    Column A                   column B
1.    locutionary act            A. The speaker is expressing his feelings and attitudes towards the
                             existing state of affairs,
2.    illocutionary act           B. The last class ‘declarations’ has the characteristic that the
                             successful performance of an act of this type brings about the
                             correspondence between the propositional content and reality.
3.    perlocutionary act         C. The constative utterance is verifiable and it is either true or false.
4.    representatives            D. The performative utterance is used o perform an action and has
                              no true value.
5.    directives                E. Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to
                              commit the speaker to some future course of action.
6.    Commisives              F. A locutionary act is the act of saying something; it is the act of
                              conveying literal meaning.
7.    expressives               G.The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the
                             speaker to something’s being the are, to the truth of the
                             expressed proposition.
8.    Declarations              H. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from
                             saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change
                             brought about by the utterance.
9.    constative utterance         I. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do
                             something.
10. performative utterance      J. An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something; its
                             force is identical with the speaker’s intention.
II.     Explain each of the following terms in no more than 50 words:
1. pragmatics                  2. utterance meaning             3. representatives
4. expressives                  5. commissives                 6. politeness principle
7. locutionary act               8. Illocutionary act               9. Perlocutionary act
III. Develop one of the following topics into a 200-word essay:  
1.    Austin’s speech act theory.
2.    Cooperative principle.

VIII. Language Change 语言的变化

本章的学习目的要求

   本章学习的中心内容是语言的变化。全章含研究语言变化的目的与意义、语言变化的本质、英语的历史发展、语系和语言变化的原因等五部分。本章的学习目的是让学生了解语言的发展史及其变迁规律。通过学习本章，学生可以从历史发展的角度来深刻认识语言的过去、现在和未来之间的关系，掌握语言历史演变的成因和规律，了解语言群体在其历史变迁中所形成的旁系与直系关系。

语言变化的基本知识

1.    Introduction 引言
It is a fact that all languages change through time, though they do so rather slowly. Where languages have written records, it is possible to see the actual changes that have taken place.
2.    Sound Change 语音变化
Sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the language. For example,
      Words          Middle English             Modern English
      Mice           [mi:s]                     [mais]
      Mouse          [mu:s]                    [maus]
3.    Morphological and Syntactic Change 形态和句法变化