Positive or negative
Interference (negative transfer) was once believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners.
Contrastive analysis: establish the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, to predict problems and errors
[Old view]: L2 errors were predominantly the result of negative transfer, or mother tongue interference. Thus, learning a L2 is always to overcome the differences.
Empirical investigation:
3%àinterference errors, 85%àdevelopmental errors
[New view]: L2 learning is a process of contracting and modifying rules of communication
[C] Error analysis and the natural route of SLA development
There was supposed to be a universal route in L2 learning because negative transfer is not the major factor in SLA as it was once assumed to be.
L2=L1 hypothesis: the process of SLA and FLA are very similar.
This was investigated through the analysis of learner errors. There are striking similarities in the ways in which different L2 learners acquire a new language.
L2 learners follow broadly similar routes, although minor differences exist due to variable learner factors and learning situations.
[D] Interlanguage and fossilization
Interlanguage: the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. It consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in between and yet distinct from the learner’s native and target languages.
Fossilization: it was once assumed that learners’ Interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence if provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and interaction. But most L2 learners failed to reach the end-point of the interlanguage continuum and acquire the native-like competence in the target language.
Explanation: learns’ interlanguage fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that are different from those of the target language system.
Chinese sound /d/àEnglish /W/, /T/; he for he or she
The use of the present tense form for a past tense verb
3rd person singular form without “s”
[E] The role of input and formal instruction
① SLA takes place only when the learner has access to L2 input and the opportunity to interact with the input.
Input may take the form of exposure in natural settings or formal instruction, either spoken or written; optimum input is needed.
Comprehensible input: the use of learned structures and vocabulary, the linguistic and extralinguistic contexts of the input data, and the learner’s general knowledge to interpret new language items.
Two very important kinds of input methods:
Interaction: taking parting in communication activities
Intake: the input that is assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system
② in general, studies of the effects of formal instruction support the hypothesis that instruction aids SLA
L2 learners are much more likely to obtain comprehensible input in the intake-type environment of a classroom setting, other than in the exposure-type environment of a natural setting.
Casual and spontaneous conversation helps a little, while planned speech, writing or career-oriented examination help a lot.
[F] Individual leaner factors like age, motivation, acculturation and personality
The rate and ultimate success in SLA are affected not only by learner’s experience with optimal input and instruction, but also by individual learner factors.
① the optimum age for second language acquisition
Adolescents: quicker and more effective L2 learners than young children
Why: the learner’s flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost while one’s cognitive skills have developed considerably to facilitate the processing of linguistic features of a new language.
② motivation
Motivation: the learner’s overall goal and orientation
Instrumental motivation: learner’s goal is functional （功能性学习动机）
Integrative motivation: learner’s goal is social （介入性学习动机）
③ acculturation （文化移入，文化适应）
It has some relation with integrative motivation, the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community. This adaptation process is called acculturation
The learning of a second language involves, and is dependent on, the acquisition of the culture of the target language community.
The acculturation hypothesis states simply that the more a person aspires to acculturate to the community of the target language, the further he or she will progress along the developmental continuum, but focuses not so much on the actual processing of the second language as on the social and psychological conditions under which L2 processing is most likely to take place successfully.
④ personality
Outgoing personality may contribute to language acquisition
Extrovertedßàintroverted
Research results lead only partial support to this hypothesis.
Oral fluency, not overall proficiency in a second language
In general, a good second language learner is, among other things, an adolescent who has a strong and well-defined motivation to learn, who is able to respond and adaptable to different learning situations, who seeks out all opportunities and makes maximum use of them to interact with the input, who employs appropriate learning strategies, and who is willing to identify himself or herself with the culture of the target language community.
