精品译文　社会结构方面的变化也许在间接地影响青少年犯罪率。比如，经济方面的变化使得青年的就业机会更少、失业率上升，这就会使得赚钱的工作日益难找。

此外，有时我们也可以根据关系词来协助我们判断先行词。比如关系词是who，那么意味着先行词一定是指人的；若关系词是which，那么意味着先行词一定是指物的。请看例句：

6　The words used by the speaker may stir up unfavorable reactions in the listener which interfere with his comprehension.

妙语点睛　这里的关系词是指物的which，因此先行词不可能是表示人的listener。于是，我们继续往左边看，找到表示物的名词reactions，可以初步判断它即是先行词。又看到从句的谓语动词interfere是复数形式，正好与复数名词reactions构成主谓一致。故可确定reactions即为先行词。

精品译文　说话人的用词可能会引起听者的不良反应，这就会影响听者的理解。

思维总结

综合前面各节的内容，下面总结一下在判断先行词时，我们要同时考虑哪几个方面。判断先行词主要可以根据两个方面：一是看主句，二是看定语从句。前者是辅助，后者是根本。

首先，结合定语从句的特点，主要看四方面：

1. 结合定语从句的意思。定语从句的内容必然是与先行词密切相关的。比如，第2.3节的例句1中的定语从句that will give them three meals a day and a place to sleep at night对先行词shelter的解释说明关系。

2. 结合定语从句中的关键词。比如，第2.2.3小节的例句2中，natural scientist与social science构成的反义对照关系。

3. 结合定语从句的谓语单复数：比如，第2.3节的例句4中的are表明elements是先行词。

4. 结合定语从句的关系词：比如，第2.3节的例句6中，which的先行词不可能是listener。

其次，结合主句的结构特点，主要看两方面：

5. 结合先行词的结构特点：先行词可能是一个词、短语、分句或完整的句子等。

6. 结合先行词的位置特点：先行词通常与定语从句是“手拉手”在一起的，但也可能被分隔两处。被分隔的情况有三种，即被定语、状语或谓语分隔。对于这一点，读者一定要真正弄懂我们前面讲过的内容，不能有丝毫含糊，因为这正是构成难句结构的一个方面。

所以，要想快速而准确地判断先行词，需要读者具备相当深厚的英语功底。当然，以上主要是针对复杂难句而言的。如果是简单的定语从句，找先行词则没有这么费劲。

思维训练

Exercise 2.2-2.3

1. 分析下列句子中定语从句的先行词，并将各句译成汉语。

1. As a linguist, he acknowledges that all varieties of human language, including non-standard ones like Black English, can be powerfully expressive--there exists no language or dialect in the world that cannot convey complex ideas.

2. More and more frequently, magazines are being published that are outside of the mainstream press. These are called 'fringe' publications and deal with the multitude of issues that are ignored by industry, the governments and the established professions.

3. Very little architecture is created that does not have a practical function. In that sense, it is hard to distinguish between it being a 'Fine Art' and an 'Applied Art'.

4. Smart cars have already been built which can monitor one's driving and the driving conditions nearby.

5. A ceasefire was arranged which allowed the Iraq government to remain in control.

6. No plan should ever be so rigid that it is unable to adapt to changing circumstances. As your career develops, opportunities will arise, and you will have choices to make that may lead you down quite different paths from those which you originally envisaged.

2. 选择最佳答案。

7. Because they are adjusting to their new bodies and a whole host of new intellectual and emotional challenges, teenagers are especially self-conscious and need the 　　　 that comes from achieving success and knowing that their accomplishments are admired by others.

A. assistance

B. guidance

C. confidence

D. tolerance





2.4　与先行词有关的考点

在本章一开始笔者就强调过，对于定语从句，最重要的是要搞清楚它所修饰的对象，即正确地找到先行词。而定语从句的基本结构是“先行词+关系词+（从句主语+）谓语动词”（如the person who does或the thing which does）。其中，先行词决定了关系词是什么，进而决定了从句的谓语动词是单数还是复数。因此，与先行词有关的考题就是围绕着先行词、关系词和从句谓语来出的。下面笔者总结出与先行词有关的考试点，共有四个方面。

2.4.1　先行词的选择

考试出题会直接考查如何选择先行词，这在上面的2.3节中我们详细地讨论过，在此不再赘述。

2.4.2　关系词的翻译

在翻译定语从句时，如果先行词判断错误，往往会导致句子误译。在2.1节中我们讨论过2004考研英语翻译真题这个句子：The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before people realized how diverse languages could be.这里对which的正确翻译就是最好的例证，在此不再赘述。

2.4.3　关系词的选择

关系词与先行词密切相关，因为关系词用来指代先行词，并且在从句中充当一定的成分。为此，选择什么样的关系词，必然要看清先行词是什么。请看例句：

The words used by the speaker may stir up unfavorable reactions in the listener 　　　 interfere with his comprehension.

A. who

B. as

C. which

D. what

正确答案　C。

妙语点睛　这是1994年考研完形填空真题。本题测试的是定语从句，考查的是关系代词的选择。而关系代词的选择取决于先行词，所以本题真正考查的是考生对定语从句先行词的判断。若先行词是listener，则选who；若先行词是reactions，则选which。但结合从句谓语动词interfere这一复数形式，我们可以很自信地判断，先行词应该是复数名词reactions而不是单数名词listener，因此这里的关系代词要用which，故C正确。

此外，关系代词as引导限制性定语从句时，其先行词需要被the same或such等修饰，若没有则不用as。what引导定语从句时，其前面是不能出现先行词的。故B、D均不正确。

精品译文　说话人的用词可能会引起听者的不良反应，这就会影响听者的理解。

2.4.4　定语从句中的主谓一致问题

我们知道，定语从句的谓语动词是用单数还是用复数，这不取决于关系词，而是由先行词决定的。因此，对先行词的判断直接影响了定语从句谓语动词的单复数形式。请看例句：

Despite (A) much research, there are still certain elements in (B) the life cycle of the insect that is (C) not fully understood (D).

正确答案　C，应改为are。

妙语点睛　这是1996年考研英语改错题。本题考查对定语从句先行词的判断。这里先行词elements与关系词that被分隔，因为elements还有一个后置定语in the life cycle of the insect。显然，这种分隔属于2.2.1小节中讨论过的第一种分隔情况：先行词+其他定语+定语从句。that指代elements，在从句中作主语，所以，谓语动词要用复数形式的are。

精品译文　尽管人们已经对昆虫进行了大量的研究，但是对其生命周期中的某些方面还没有完全了解。

思维总结

综上所述，相信读者已体会到“找到先行词”对于正确理解定语从句的重要意义。再次强调，在今后的学习和应试当中，碰到定语从句的时候，首先要想到“找到先行词”，只有准确地找到先行词，才能分清句子结构，理解句子各部分的逻辑关系，从而正确理解句子的意思。

思维训练

Exercise 2.4

选择最佳答案。

1. Another food crop raised by Indians 　　　 strange to the European was called Indian corn.

A. who were

B. that were

C. that was

D. who was

2. The time is not far away 　　　 modern communications will become widespread in China's vast countryside.

A. as

B. when

C. until

D. before

3. They helped us time and again, 　　　 very kind of them.

A. who were

B. which was

C. that was

D. which were

4. Those guilty of a serious crime 　　　 refuse to reform must be severely punished.

A. which

B. whom

C. when

D. who

5. Helen was much kinder to her youngest child than she was to the others, 　　　 of course, made others jealous.

A. who

B. that

C. what

D. which





2.5　关系代词which/that/who/whom

以上四节讨论的内容都是关于先行词的。前面我们讲过，定语从句的核心就是围绕着先行词和关系词展开的。所以，讨论完先行词，下面我们要把关注的焦点转移到关系词上来。正确地找到先行词是理解定语从句的关键，而关系词的选择和使用则是学习定语从句的主要内容。下面我们先来从总体上了解一下英文里的关系词。

关系词分为关系代词和关系副词。常用的关系代词有who/whom（指代的先行词表示人）, which（指代的先行词表示物）, that/whose（指代的先行词表示人或物）。其他的关系代词还有as（见2.8节）, than（见2.9节）, but（见2.10节）以及what（见2.11节）。这些特殊的关系代词的用法我们在下文都会详细讨论。关系代词在定语从句中可充当主语、宾语或表语等句子成分。

关系副词有when（表示时间）, where（表示地点）和why（表示原因），它们在定语从句中一般只充当状语。

最常用的关系代词主要是which, that, who和whom，这些都是读者很熟悉的，在此不再赘述。下面仅举几例予以说明：

1　A friend is a present which you give yourself. To be a good friend or partner, it's important to be a good listener.

妙语点睛　如本句所示，先行词present指物，关系词可以用which。

精品译文　朋友是你送给自己的一份礼物。要想成为一个好朋友或好伙伴，重要的是做一个好听众。

2　In the Europe, as elsewhere, multi-media group have been increasingly successful groups which bring together television, radio, newspapers, magazines and publishing houses that work in relation to one another.

妙语点睛　这是2005年考研英语翻译真题。如本句所示，先行词指物，关系词可以用which或that。这里which的先行词是successful groups，that的先行词是television, radio, newspapers, magazines and publishing houses。

精品译文　在欧洲，像在其他地方一样，多媒体集团越来越成功了。这些集团把相互间联系密切的电视台、电台、报纸、杂志以及出版社组合到了一起。

3　The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation.

妙语点睛　这是1993年的考研英语翻译真题。在that前面不能有介词，所以本句用了by which，而不能说by that。

精品译文　科学研究的方法不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式，也就是对一切现象进行思索并给以精确而严谨解释的表达方式。

4　Some companies are limiting the risk by conducting online transactions only with established business partners who are given access to the company's private Intranet.

妙语点睛　这里的先行词是business partners，表示人，所以用who来引导定语从句。

精品译文　一些公司只与那些获准进入公司内部网的固定交易伙伴进行在线交易，通过这种方式来降低风险。

5　The "housing slave" is a new expression in China, referring to people who use most of their salary to repay bank loans due to soaring housing prices.

妙语点睛　这里的先行词是people，表示人，所以用who来引导定语从句。

精品译文　在中国，“房奴”是个新词，指那些因房价飞涨而把绝大部分工资用于偿还银行购房贷款的人。





2.6　关系代词whose

上面讨论的关系代词一般都是单独使用，它们后面不接名词。但whose则不同，它后面必须接一个名词，而不能单独使用。因此，whose用作关系词确切来讲应该算作是关系形容词，或者叫关系限定词。另外，whose同that一样，既可以指人，也可以指物。请看例句：

1　There are nations whose lack of contact with the outside world has resulted in poverty.

妙语点睛　这里的whose与名词短语lack of contact with the outside world连用，whose修饰先行词nations。

精品译文　有些国家因为闭关锁国，缺少与其他国家的交流，导致贫困。

2　President-elect Bush inherits a nation whose citizens will be ready to assist him in the conduct of his large responsibilities.

妙语点睛　这里的whose与名词citizens连用，whose修饰先行词nation。

精品译文　当选总统布什接手的这个国家，其全体国民都将会协助他来履行自己的重大责任。

3　Aimlessness has hardly been typical of the postwar Japan whose productivity and social harmony are the envy of the United States and Europe.

妙语点睛　这里的whose与名词短语productivity and social harmony连用，whose修饰先行词postwar Japan。

精品译文　战后的日本的目标一直很明确，它的生产力和社会和谐的状况为美国和欧洲所羡慕。

4　At the same time, the American Law Institute--a group of judges, lawyers, and academics whose recommendations carry substantial weight--issued new guidelines for tort law stating that companies need not warn customers of obvious dangers or bombard them with a lengthy list of possible ones.

妙语点睛　这里的whose与名词recommendations连用，whose的先行词是a group of judges, lawyers, and academics，指人。

精品译文　与此同时，美国法律研究所（由一群法官、律师和理论专家组成，他们的建议极有分量）发布了新的民事伤害法令指导方针，宣称公司不必提醒客户注意显而易见的危险，也不必连篇累牍地一再请他们注意一些可能会出现的危险。

思维训练

Exercise 2.5-2.6

1. 选择最佳答案。

1. Beer is the most popular drink among male drinkers, 　　　 overall consumption is significantly higher than that of women.

A. whose

B. which

C. that

D. what

2. The residents, 　　　 had been damaged by the flood, were given help by the red Gross.

A. all their homes

B. all who homes

C. all of whose homes

D. all of their homes

3. The professor and her achievement 　　　 you told me about are admired by us all.

A. who

B. which

C. that

D. whom

4. I don't suppose anything happens 　　　 he doesn't foresee.

A. that

B. which

C. what

D. as

5. They shouted with the loudest voice 　　　 they could.

A. when

B. that

C. which

D. what

6. This is the best book 　　　 on the subject.

A. which there is

B. that there is

C. which is

D. what is

7. What's in a name? That 　　　 we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.

A. what

B. that

C. which

D. when

8. The meeting was postponed, 　　　 was exactly what I wanted.

A. that

B. which

C. and which

D. this

2. 辨别改错。

9. It is perhaps not an exaggeration to say (A) that we shall soon be trusting (B) our health, wealth and happiness to elements with whom (C) very names the general public are (D) unfamiliar.





2.7　介词+关系代词

在英语里，我们常常碰到定语从句的关系代词（主要是which，其他还包括whom和whose）前面带有介词或介词短语的情况。这些介词什么时候不加，什么时候必须加，以及究竟该用什么介词，这几个问题对于很多读者来说是有一定难度的。对此，笔者是从1999年开始关注的，到现在为止，笔者收集了各种“介词+关系代词”形式的句子，并总结出了下面这些关于关系代词前面加介词的使用规律以及其他相关句型结构。

2.7.1　看从句选介词

选择放在关系词前面的介词，第一条规律就是“看从句选介词”，即根据定语从句中的线索来判断介词。那么要看从句中的什么线索？这些线索包括定语从句中的动词、形容词和名词，所选用的介词须与它们构成固定搭配。

一、看从句的动词：所用介词须与定语从句中的动词构成固定搭配（最常见）

这里所说的动词往往是指定语从句中的谓语动词。我们先来看几个简单的例句：

1　The girl with whom you work is his girl friend.

妙语点睛　关系词whom前面的介词with与定语从句中的谓语动词work构成固定搭配work with，表示“和……一起工作”。

精品译文　和你一起工作的那个女孩是他的女朋友。

2　He is the man on whom I think you can depend.

妙语点睛　关系词whom前面的介词on与定语从句中的谓语动词depend构成固定搭配depend on，表示“依靠”。

精品译文　我认为他是你可以依靠的人。

3　The buzzard can watch high in the sky the ground for signs of the waste and the dead animals on which it feeds.

妙语点睛　关系词which前面的介词on与定语从句中的谓语动词feeds构成固定搭配feed on，表示“以……为生”。

精品译文　秃鹰可以从高空中俯瞰大地，搜寻它们要吃的垃圾和动物尸体。

4　It was luck again, according to Nina, that brought her the role in Mute Wife for which she is best known.

妙语点睛　关系词which前面的介词for与定语从句中的谓语动词is known构成固定搭配be known for，表示“因为……而著名”。

精品译文　妮娜认为，这次她又是幸运地在《哑巴妻子》这部剧中担任角色，她正是以此剧目而最为著名。

5　The goals for which he had fought all his life no longer seemed important to him

妙语点睛　关系词which前面的介词for与定语从句中的谓语动词fought构成固定搭配fight for，表示“为……而奋斗”。

精品译文　他毕生为之奋斗的目标现在对他来说似乎并不重要了。

6　On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the others with whom he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed.

图解难句



妙语点睛　关系词whom前面的介词with与定语从句中的谓语动词compared构成固定搭配compare...with，表示“将……与……进行比较”。

精品译文　总的来说，得出这种结论是有一定程度的把握的，但是必须具备两个条件：一是能够假定这个孩子对测试的态度和与他进行比较的另一个孩子的态度相同，二是他也没有因为缺乏别的孩子所具有的有关知识而被扣分。

译文心得　该句含有两个only if引导的从句，并且有并列连词but和and连接，使得整句话的逻辑关系十分清楚，表示“……能够得出结论……但是只要……而且只要”。从以上译文我们可以看出，为了使中文表达更加清楚，我们首先提纲挈领地把but only if...and only if译出来，译成“但是必须具备两个条件”。

在以上讨论的例句中，介词都是与定语从句的谓语动词构成固定搭配。其实，介词也可以与从句中的其他动词构成固定搭配关系。比如下面这个例句：

7　Homo erectus is the name commonly given to the primate species from which humans are believed to have evolved.

妙语点睛　关系词which前面的介词from与定语从句中的不定式动词evolved（而不是谓语动词believed）构成固定搭配evolve from，表示“由……进化而来”。

此外，关于这里的不定式为什么要用have evolved而不是evolve，我们将在第四章“不定式”中的第4.11节详细讨论。

精品译文　homo erectus一词通常是用来指灵长类动物，据说人类就是从灵长类动物进化而来的。

二、看从句的形容词：所用介词需与定语从句中的形容词构成搭配（比较常见）

以上讨论的介词往往都是与定语从句的谓语动词（或其他动词）构成固定搭配，但是如果定语从句的谓语不是一个实义动词，而是由be动词与某个形容词构成的，我们则要使用与该形容词搭配的介词。请看例句：

8　We assume that the meanings of these underwater sounds are similar to those with which we are familiar on land.

妙语点睛　关系词which前面的介词with与定语从句谓语部分中的形容词familiar构成固定搭配be familiar with sth.，表示“对……熟悉”。